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Dc^iyned by S. E. Rilcluy, 1S93 



High School Manual Training Course 

IN 

WOODWORK 

INCLUDING 

COST OF EC^IPMENT AND SUPPLIES 

AND 

STUDIES ON TREES AND WOOD 



PREPARED BY 

SAMUEL E. RITCHEY 

I; 

Instructor in R. T. Crane Manual Training High Scliool 



New York .•. Cincinnati .*. Chicago 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



LASS A XXo. No. 



PREFACE 




This course, in its entirety, has been in daily use for nearly three years in the Richard T. Crane ^lanual Training 
High School, Chicago. The greater part of it has been in use many years longer. It is the result of an experience 
of nearly fifteen years in high school manual training work. 

It was prepared originally to save time spent by a pupil in writing in his shop note book the many helpful 
points suggested by his instructor. Such facts, and even the demonstrations, ought to be at the pupil's disposal 
for future reference, since .young people cannot grasp fully even very slow and careful explanations and demonstra- 
tions involving the use of unfamiliar tools and appliances. 

The description of the equipment and prices and supplies was added to become a part of the boy's wider 
knowledge of his shop, and in the hope that the items may be helpful to other instructors or schools contemplating 
manual training. 

The short studies on trees and wood are .supplemented by lectures on wood, given in the assembly hall, and 
illustrated by two hundred lantern slides, the property of the school. These lectures take up the preservation 
of forests, the effect of forests on rainfall and climate,-'«n: floods and drought, tree planting, lumbering, milling, 
transporting, seasoning. 



CorVRlGHT. 1905, BV 

SAMUEL E. RITCHEV 



/^ 



^_ O^rJ^O/^ 



CONTENTS 



Equipment 

Course in Shop Work- 
Trees 
Wood 
Carpentry 
Wood Turning 
Cabinet Making 
Methods of Molding 
Pattern Making 
Helpful Suggestions 
Index 



-First Year 



7 

13 

18 

27 

38 

74 

108 

163 

173 

207 

211 





JJtSl.f ^t,Ci 






EQUIPMENT 



MANUAL TRAINING BENCHES 

Two styles of double benches are shown (Fig. 1). 
Thirty-six benches of the first style have been in use 
for several years at the R. T. Crane School — the English 
High and ^lanual — and have given perfect satisfaction. 
The cost was $40.00 each, including two Tole's vises. 

The tops are glued up of alternate strips of hard maple 
and cherry, or hard maple and walnut, and each is 
supplied with a Tole's vise and a tail-screw vise on each 
side. 

The cupboard door swings on L shapetl pivots, in the 
center, at the ends, and when open displays the "gen- 
eral" tools conveniently in sight, and still back in the 
cupboard far enough to prevent striking the knees. 

Three deep, slender pockets, to the right of the door, 
hold the three saws. There is room back of the door 
for two plane stocks, the bench brush, and the bench 
hook. The three drawers are roomy and deep, as deep 
as the width of the base of the bench. 

In the second style of bench a sliding door covers the 
cupboard for the " general " tools. This style of bench has 
somewhat more drawer room, since the loss in depth, 
taken off for the cupboard, is more than made up by 
gain in width. 

Three deej; pockets, between the drawers and cup- 
boards — as in the other bench — serve to hold the saws. 



WOOD SHOP OUTFIT 

Each bench is outfitted with two sets of "general" 
tools, for the use of every boy who works at the bench, 
and six sets (the lower bench eight sets) of "individual" 
edged tools, each set for the use of one particular boy 
only, for the whole year. 

The keeping of these tools in perfect condition, es- 
pecially the individual, edged tools, is one of the chief 
features of the boys' manual training. 

The general tools, with retail prices, are: 

— No. 3 Bailey iron plane stock, 1}" liit .Il . 10 

— No. 5 Bailey iron plane stock, 2" bit 1 .3.5 

— 6" Stanley iron handled try square 24 

— 8" swing Barber's brace, ball bearing 108 

— 12 oz. Maydole riveting, or claw hammer. . .5.5 

— Rubber mallet 75 

— 6" Tower champion screw dri\-er 35 

— Box-wood marking gauge 28 

—Stanley 6" T bevel 40 

— 6" Bemis & Call dividers 32 

— AM bristle bench Ijrush 60 

— Lily-white Washita oil stone, fine, 6"x2"xl" . 45 

— Oil can 18 

—10" back saw 94 

— 20" cross-cut saw 1-40 

— 22" rip saw 1-40 

Sn.3'.} 



EQUIP^IENT 



The individual tools, with retail prices, are: 
1 — 1" Buck Bros, beveled edge, handled finiier 

chisel $ . 57 

1 — h" same 46 

1 — J" same 41 

1 — double iron for No. 3 Bailey plane, IJ" bit. .38 
1 — double iron for No. 5 Bailey plane, 2" bit. . .42 

$2,24 

Note. — Aljove prices are retail prices, for use of pupils who wish 
to buy tools. A discoiuit will of course be given when tools are 
liought in sets. 

The No. 3 Bailey plane, complete, retails at. . $1.3.5 
The No. 5 Bailey plane, complete, retails at. . 1,70 

$3.05 

WOOD SHOP MACHINERY AND MOTORS 

1—24" Clements single surfacer S 300 00 

1 — Beach scroll saw 80 , 00 

2 — 36" Clements band saws 260 . 00 

1 — Boring machine 90.00 

1 — Oliver circular saw 300 . 00 

4 — Brown & Sharpe grindstones with truing 

devices , 360.00 

1 — Glue heater — steam 15 . 00 

1— Fox trimmer 80.00 

1 — Hand planer (jointer) 150.00 

1 — Dry emerj' grinder 40.00 

1 — Automatic planer knife grinder 112.00 

1 — Turning lathe — 10" — lecture room 50.00 

1 — Sturtevant shaving exliauster, 40", with 
Willmareth & Rabbe shaving separa- 
tor and piping 900 . 00 

1 — 30 H. P. motor, wiring and starting box. 500.00 

1 — 20 H. P. motor, wiring and starting box. 400.00 

1 — 2 H. P. motor, wiring and starting l)ox. . 2.50.00 

Shafting, hangers, belting, pulleys 600.00 

$4,487.00 



TURNING SHOP OUTFIT 

30 Lathes, 10": 

Reed lathes, with 2 bearings for 

headstock spindle each $50.00 

Prentice lathes each 50 . 00 

Wetherby, Rugg & Richardson 

lathes each 60.00 



$1,580.00 

JO Tool cases— 5 drawers each 23.00 — $690.00 

The general tools, in tool drawer, with prices, are: 

— Firm joint calipers, 6", outside $ .50 

— Finn joint calipers, 6", inside 50 

— Lily-white Washita oil stone, fine, 6"x2"xl". .50 

— Lily-white Washita oil slip stone, fine 15 

— Oil can 18 

— Screw driver 35 

— All bristle bench brush 60 

— 6" swing Barber's brace, ball l)earing 95 

—6" Bemis & Call dividers 32 

— J" German gimlet bit 10 

— J" same 10 

$4.25 

The general turning chisels, with prices, are: 

— 1" Buck Bros, handled skew chisel $ .64 

— I" same 34 

— I" Buck Bros, handled turning gouge 63 

— I" same 47 

— I" Buck Bros, handled square scraping chisel .56 
— I" Buck Bros, round nose handled scraping 

chisel 45 

— '( " same 42 

— I" Buck Bros, handled spearpoint scraping 

chisel 45 

$3.96 



EQUIP.MENT 



The individual turning chisels in each drawer, with 
prices, are: 

1 — i" Buck Bros, handled skew chisel $ .42 

1 — J" Buck Bros, handled square scraping chisel .42 

S0.S4 

Note. — It is hoped that each boy will have most of these cutting 
tools as" his own individual tools in the near future. 

MACHINERY AND MOTORS 

1 — Leland & Faulconer water emerj' grinder $100,00 

4 — Grindstones and truing devices 200 . 00 

1 — 30" Clements band saw 100 . 00 

1 — 10" turning lathe — lecture room 50 . 00 

1 — 25 H. P. motor, wiring and starting box. 400.00 
1 — 2 H. P. motor, wiring and starting box. . 250.00 
Shafting, hangers, clutches, pulleys, belting. 800 00 

$1,900.00 

TOOL ROOM EQUIPMENT FOR 72 PUPILS 
Clamps and Handscrews 

2 steel bar carpenter's clamps — open 6 ft. . . . $7.00 
1 doz. steel bar carpenter's clamps — open 2h ft. 17 .00 

4 doz. Bliss handscrews, 9" jaw 12.50 

4 doz. Bliss handscrews, 14" jaw 15.00 

1 doz. each clamp and set screws for Bliss 1 
handscrews — 9" jaw I 

1 doz. each clamp and set screws for Bliss [ 

handscrews — 14" jaw J 

$56.. 50 

Rules 

2 doz. 2 fold pattern maker's rules, 24J" $12.00 

i doz. 2 ft. rules, unbound 1 20 

$13.20 



Bits 

1 complete set Russell Jennings brace bits in 

box $4.00 

i doz. J" dowel bits — Russell Jennings, 4^" 

long twist .95 

i doz. §" dowel bits — Russell Jennings, 4i" 

long twist 1 . 40 

2 sets each, Pratt's German gimlet bits, 2-32, 

3-32, 4-32, 5-32, 0-32 and i 85 

1 each No. 1 and No. 2 expansion bits 1 .75 

I doz. rose countersinks 1 .00 

Files 

1 doz. 10" mill bastard, one round edge $2.00 

1 doz. 7" .slim taper 1 . 40 

1 doz. 4" slim taper .85 

1 doz. 8" half round, mill bastard 2.20 

Wrenches, Pliers 

1 each— 6", 10", 12", 18" Coe's monkey 

wrenches, black $2 . 35 

i doz. S wrenches, assorted.. 1 .00 

1 pipe wrench, 12" 1 . 50 

1 Osborn gas pliers, 10" .75 

1 Barnard's cutting pliers .90 

2 flat nosed pliers .40 

i doz. carpenter's pinchers — 8" 1 . 20 

Belt Repairing 

1 complete wire lacing outfit $10.00 

25 ft. each i" and 5-16" rawhide belt lacing . . .40 

200 each 1", 1|" and 2" pointed belt hooks. . 1.25 

5 gals, belt grease 6 . 00 

1 belt punch, 4 cutters .90 



$9.95 



$8.10 



$18.55 



lU 



ECjUIPMENT 



Repairs for Planes 

i doz. handles for each Xo. 3 ;ind Xo. 5 Bailey 

planes $1.00 

i doz. caps, with cap screws, for each No. 3 

and No. 5 Bailey planes 2.. 50 

2 frogs, with screws and washers, for each Xo. 

3 and Xo. 5 Bailey planes 1 . 30 



Ladders 

2 — 12 ft. ladders, slrong, wide at liase, with 

steel points $4 . .50 

2 — S ft. step-ladders, strong, l)race(l 5. 00 

Miscellaneous 

1 set .steel letters, .5-10" $1 ..50 

1 set steel figures, I" .50 

1 50 ft. tape line, linen, wired 2.50 

1 12" level, Stanley 90 

K doz. steel carjicnter's squares 4.50 

1 each Champion screw drivers. 3", 12", l.s" . 1.00 
i doz. Pratt's knurled, cup point nail sets, 

3-.32" 50 

1 doz. assorted Ijrad-awls, handled .60 

4 tin lined glue pots, 1 qt 2.00 

2 each I", i", f , 19 ft. band saws, filed and .set 10.00 
1 doz. felloe webs, heavy (scroll saw blades) 1.25 

1 doz. each 2" and 3" middle brass butts 1 .30 

1 ratchet brace, 10" swing, l)all bearing 1.50 

.50 each, J", f , 1" dowel rods I .00 

1 doz. each, \", i". i", V, 1" l^uck Bros. 

handled paring gouges 27.. 50 



$4.80 



J doz. each, -\", V', \" Buck Bros, handled 

firmer gouges $7.50 

J doz. steel cabinet scrapers .50 

2 doz. Stanley iron handled spoke shaves, 

adjustable 5.00 

1 doz. wood handled spoke shaves 2.00 

i doz. pattern maker's knives 4.50 

1 Star hack saw, and 12 blades for same 2.65 

25 ft., j" hemp rope 2.00 



■ $81.30 

SUPPLIES FOR ONE YEAR FOR 72 PUPILS 
Lumber 

500 ft. 1" first clear white pine, kiln dried, 

s2s to i"< $75.00 M $37.50 

500 ft. 2" first clear white pine, kiln dried, 

s2s to If 37. .50 

2.50 ft. IJ" first clear white pine, re-sawed, 

then kiln dried, s2s to J" 19. 50 

500 ft. 1" first clear yellow poplar, kiln 

dried, s2s to J", $45.00 M 22.. 50 

1000 ft. 2" first clear gum, rough, ripiietl into 

strips, 2" w ide, $35.00 M 35 . 00 

200 ft. first clear red sycamore, kiln 

dried, quarter .sawed, $65.00 M 1 3 00 

200 ft. 1" first clear red sycamore, kiln 

dried — Q. S. re-sawed 14 . 00 

200 ft. I" first clear white oak, kiln dried, 

qviarter sawed, .$65.00 M 13.00 

200 ft. 2" first clear red S3-camore, kiln 

dried 13.00 

200 ft, 2" first clear wliite oak, kiln dried. 13 00 

$218.00 



EQUIPMENT 



Brushes 

i (loz. §" iron handled glue brushes $ .0.") 

J doz. 2" ohi.seled Fitch flowing varnish 

bru.shes .• . . . I.-IO 

i doz. — 1" chiseled Fitch flowing varnish 

brushes .7.) 

J doz. 2 q\iill, split-quill pencils, pointed .... .00 

1 doz. Xo. 5 artists' round bristle .3.5 

1 doz. X'o. 4 artists' round camel's hair ..3.') 



Varnish, Oils, Sandpaper, etc. 

3 gals, best piano finish copal rubbing varni.sh. $ 0.00 
5 gals, double extra pure grain alcohol white 

shellac vaniish 15 . 00 

3 gals, turpentine 1 . 9.5 

5 gals, grain alcohol 10 . 7.5 

2 gals, raw linseed oil .80 

1 gal. boiled linseed oil .45 

5 lbs. orange shellac, dry 1 . 75 

3 lbs. Chinese veniiilion 2 , 00 

5 lbs. pure countrj' bees-wax 1 .00 

2 reams X'o. 1 Deader & Adam.son or Union 

sandpaper, .SI. 90 ream 3 SO 

1 ream each, Xo. J, 0, 00, same .5 70 

2 doz. IJ pt. tin cups .60 

4 — 1 gal. glass bottles, with glass stopper.;. ... 1 .50 

2 — 2 gal. varnish cans, encased in wood 1 . 50 

1 — 5 gal. oil can, with pump 1 00 

50 lbs. extra fine powdered pumice stone, 2c. 11]. 1 . 00 

25 lbs. extra fine powdered rotten stone, 4c. II). 1 . 00 

1 doz. 1 lb. cans, each white and brown, 

^Vheeler's wood filler. 15c 3.60 

2 gal. golden oak oil stain, .$1.20 2.40 

2 doz. 1 lb. cans Butcher's w.ax polish, 3.5c. . 8.40 



10 lbs. lamp black, Sc $ .80 

\ bbl. Cooper's IX ghip 7 , 00 

1 lb. sheep's wool sponges 2 . 00 

2 j'ds. .saddler's felt (for rubbing piuuice) . ... 4 00 

25 lbs. fine cotton batting (to poli.sh) 4.00 

20 yds. fine cheesecloth (to polish and wa.\). .SO 



Flat-head, Bright Screws 



5 gro 


each — 1 


gro 


each — 2 gro. each — • 




u 


' Xo. 10 


2', 


Xo. 10 i" Xo. 1—2 




n 


Xo. 11 


3" 


Xo. 10 §" Xo. 2—5 




1] 


' Xo. 1 1 


3', 


Xo. IS }/' Xo. ,3—0 




2" 

u 


Xo. 12 
Xo. 10 


4" 


Xo. 20 5" Xo. 4—7 
1" Xo. 4—7 
i" Xo. 0—9 
lyXo. 
IV' Xo. 7 






$6.00 




S3 . 20 


S2.20 




WIRE BR.tDS 


WIRE N.\ILS 




5 lbs. 


2" Xo. 13 


$ 


.25 5 lbs. 3" Xo. 10. 


$ .25 


5 lbs. 


IJ" Xo. 15 




.30 5 lbs. 2" Xo. 13. 


.25 


5 1I)S. 


1" Xo. IS 




.40 5 lbs. IV Xo. 14. 


. .30 


2 lbs. 


r Xo. 20 




.20 5 lbs. 1" Xo. 10. 


.40 


2 ll)s. 


I" Xo. 20 




.20 





$88 . SO 



SI. 35 $1.20 2.55 

L.A.G BOLTS M.\CHINE BOLTS 

2.5— li"— Jj" dia . $ .17 25— IV'— t\"dia. $ .20 

2.5— 2"— f'dia 20 2.5— 2"— §" dia 24 

25— 3"— fdia 23 25— 3"— J" dia 20 

$ .60 $ .70 1.30 

ToT.\i S.326 . 15 



12 



EQUIPMENT 



COST OF COMPLETE WOOD SHOP OUTFIT 
FOR SEVENTY-TWO BOYS 

{Three classes — tuTnty-four pupils in each) 

12 double benches, ■nith Tole's vises and 
wooden tail screws, 3 drawers and tool 

cupboard on each side, $50.00 each . . $ 600 . 00 

24 sets general tools, $1.5.00 360 . 00 

72 sets individual tools, $2.25 162.00 

1—36" Clements band saw 130.00 

2 — Brown & Sharpe grindstones, with tniing 

devices 180.00 

1 — Oliver circular saw 30 . 00 

1 — Glue heater and connections 25 . 00 

1—15 H. P. motor and starting box 350 . 00 

Shafting, pulleys, belting, hangers 105.00 

Tool-room outfit '. 206.00 

Supplies for one year for 72 boys 325.00 

$2,473.00 



COST OF COMPLETE TURNING SHOP OUTFIT 
FOR SEVENTY-TWO BOYS 

{Three classes — twenty-four pupils in each) 

24 — Wood turning lathes, with counter- 
shafts, $.50.00 $1,200.00 

Shafting 40.00 

Pulleys 100.00 

Hangers 285.00 

Beltnig 245.00 

2 — Brown & Sharpe grindstones with truing 

devices ISO . 00 

1—30" Clements band saw 90.00 

1 — Leland & Faulconer water emery grinder. 100.00 

1 — 25 H. P. motor with starting box 400.00 

24— tool cases or benches, $25.00 600 . 00 

24 sets drawer tools, $4.25 106 . 00 

24 sets general tools, $4.00 100.00 

72 sets individual tools, $ .85 62 . 50 

1,000 ft.— 2" gum, ripped 2" wide 36.00 

$3,.544.50 



COURSE IN SHOP WORK— FIRST YEAR 



TIME 

In the wood-shop, the 40 weeks of the school year are 
divided into 4 equal periods: 

10 weeks for carpentry, 
10 weeks for wood turning, 
10 weeks for cabinet making, 
10 weeks for pattern making. 

From I2 hours to 2 hours are given to shop work, 
every day, for 5 days in the week — the rest of the 
time is devoted to the usual high school academic work, 
including 1 hour each day in mechanical, or otiier, 
drawing. 

A working drawing, to a scale, showing plan, eleva- 
tion, and end views, and necessary sectional views, with 
all dimensions, is required from each pupil, before be- 
ginning to make any exercise. These drawings are made 
at home. 

TREES 

White Pine — Great usefulness of wood — reasons — where 

found — growth — leaves and fruit — character of wood 

— cost — use in shop. 
Gum — Two kinds — use of each — where found — growth — 

leaves — coloring — fruit — peculiarities of grain — cost 

— use in shop. 



Tulip Tree, Yellow Poplar— Large growth — usefulness of 
tree — where found — leaves — flowers — fruit — cost — 
use in shop. 

Oaks — Great general utility in olden times — superseded 
somewhat by softer woods of America and use of iron 
— chemical properties — different species — standard of 
measurement — where found — character and beauty 
of wood — medullary rays — leaves — fruit — cost — use 
in shop. 

Sycamore — Size of tree — where found — peculiarity of 
bark — leaves — fruit — interwoven , cross-grain — med- 
ullary rays — use in general — cost — use in shop. 

Maples — Growth world wide — great utility — leaves — 
color — winged seeds or "keys" — character of wood — 
close, hard grain — beauty of bird's-eyes and curls — 
presence of sugar in sap — general use — cost — use in 
shop. 

Birches^Growth in all northern hemispheres — history 
very old, probably on account of bark — use of bark in 
ancient times — in modern times — by American In- 
dians — character of wood — color — beauty of curly 
birch — cost^general use — use in shop. 

WOOD 

Talks on wood^Structure — different tissues, pith, 
wood, bark — cambium layer — annual rings — sap wood 



14 



COURSE IN SHOP WORK— FIRST YEAR 



— heart wood — food, growth, cutting, moisture — shrink- 
age — grain of wood — drying — stiffness, products, mill- 
ing — quarter sawing — measurement — values. 

CARPENTRY TEN WEEKS 
Sawing 

Talks on saws — Reasons for different amount of pitch 
on teeth — saw-setting — filing. 

Knife lining with square, across the grain — gauging 
with the grain — sawing to knife line — rii)ping to gauge 
line. 

Application — Sawing out stock for box. 

Grinding 

Talks on grinding tools and machines — Sandstone — 
emer\' — use of water — speed of stone — direction — tru- 
ing device. 



To plane a true surface — Pressure applied at toe and 
heel. 

To joint edges — Making straight and sc^uare — use of 
try .square. 

To plane ends square — Reversing direction of plane. 

Practice in Gauging 

To plane to dimensions — Rule for planing to dimen- 
sions. 

To plane to gauge lines — Sharpening gauge point — 
light and hea\ y gauge lines affecting dimensions. 

Nails 

Talks on nails — Wire and cut — sharj) and blunt ends 
— parallel and w'edge shaped sides. 

Talks on construction of barrels, boxes, crates — Sug- 



Grinding plane bits and chisels — Length of l)e^■cl or gestions as to best methods of fastening on bottoms and 



grind for hand tools, while cutting wood — stone, iron. 

Sharpening 

Oil stones— Use of oil. 

Whetting straight tools — Plane bits and chisels — on 
oil stone — gouges on oil slips. 

Planing 

Talks on planes — Smooth, jack, jointer, rabbet — 
different planes for different trades. 

Cover or breaker — Reason for use — difference in set- 
ting — illustrations — .setting the plane-liil. 



tops. 

Application — Making a liox of white wood, having 
given only inside dimensions, and thickness of material 
— Stock bill to be made by each pupil. 

A sawing and planing exerci.se, in which each piece is 
to be made exactly to dimensions, nailed together, and 
inspected by instructor before smoothing off outside 
surfaces. 

Chiseling 

Crinding and sharpening of chisels — Length of bevel 



COURSE IN SHOP WORK— FIRST YEAR 



15 



Shearing cuts — To prevent tearing of annual I'ings — 
cliiseling to knife lines — sides and l)(i(((inis of grooves, 
across and with the grain. 

Oblique surfaces — ^larking out without knife or gauge. 

Making and laying out a complete chiselingexerci.se — 
Planing — sawing — knifing — chiseling square grooves, 
mortises, ol)lique surfaces — paring with a shearing cut 
— making of hat-rack strip. 

Construction 

Talks on carpentry construction — House-framing — 
roofs — trusses — joints used in such construction. 

Application — flaking of half lap — morti.se and tenon 
— dovetail — keyed joints — wedged joints — doweled 
joints. 

WOOD TURNING— TEN WEEKS 

Talks on the steam engine — Electric motor. 

Hangers — Adjustable, ring orling — Shafting, cold 
rolled, turned — speed. 

Pulleys — Crown and flat-faced — speed. Clutches. 
Belting — How made, repairing, dressing. Belt lacing — 
Belt hooks, gluing. Counter shaft — Use, parts, speed. 

Talks on loose pulleys, clutches, bushings, methods 
of oiling and greasing. 

The Lathe 

Primiti\'e lathe — Hand power. Modern lathes. Free 
hand drawing of lathe and counter shaft, by pupil — all 
parts named on drawing. Care of lathe — Oiling — clean- 
ing. Speed of lathe for large and small diameters. 



Turning Between Centers 

Turning chisels, skews and gouges — Grinding and 
whetting. 

Cylindrical forms — Gouge and skew chi.sel — gouge held 
tangent to wood and rolled over to make shearing cut — 
skew held tangent and at an angle to smooth surface. 

Cylinder to dimensions and length — Calipers. 

Square and V grooves, holding skew with grind at 
right angles to wood — use of acute point and obtuse 
point of small skew illustrated. 

Convex and concave curves — Beads and hollows — 
small gouge rolled over. Combinations and applications 
— darner, gavel, turned parts of patterns. 
Chuck Turning 

Scraping tools — Reason fur use, grinding and whet- 
ting. Face plates — Turning true surfaces and beads 
and hollows. 

Application — Parts of patterns — rosettes, pin-trays. 

Wood chucks — Reversing exercise — segment work. 

Application — Ring, pulleys, sphere. 

CABINET MAKING— TEN WEEKS 

Talks on cabinet woods — Beauty of grain — quarter 
sawing — seasoning — kiln drying. 

Clamps — Hand screws — hand clamps — wedge clamps 
— presses — vises. 

Talks on glue — Cooking — glue pots — heating ovens 
for wood and glue — glue-joint.s — doweled — tongued and 
grooved — clamped — rubbed joints — end wood joints — 
sizinsr. 



16 



COURSE IN SHOP WORK— FIRST YEAR 



Preparing beautiful cross-grained and curly grained 
wood for varnish or finishing — The cabinet scraper — 
filing and oilstoning — scraper steel — sharpening. 

Sandpaper — How made and sold — care in using. 

Finishing (Varnishing) 

Preparing for varnish — Use of shellac varnish to hold 
color of wood — linseed-oil fillers, use of, saving — stains, 
oil, water, alcohol. 

Varnishes 

Talks on preservatives of wood — Shellac varnish — 
composition — uses — durability. 

Copal varnish — Composition — uses — thinning — 
durability. 

Rubbing Down 

Pumice stone — Use — composition — methods of rub- 
bing. 

Patching 
Oiling — Staining — revarnishing. 

Polishing 
Rotten stone — Composition — methods of using. 

Waxing 

Old time methods of finishing wood. 
Preparing wood with filler or shellac varnish before 
waxing. 



Cracking and Blistering 

Supposed causes — Helps. 

Application — Glove box — taboret — letter box 
— hand mirror — French stool — hat frame — mirror 
frame — magazine holder. 

PATTERN MAKING—TEN WEEKS 

Talks on Foundry — C'upola. 

Methods of mokling — Casting, flask, cope and drag, 
venting. 

Jlaking of drawing of flask, showing pattern rammed 
up in position — Sprue, riser, vents. 

Parting — Parted patterns — coping down. 

Ramming up solid and parted patterns. 

Coring and cores, green sand and baked — Core ovens, 
venting. 

Green sand molds; core sand molds. 

Three or more part flasks — Patterns %\ith mo\'able 
parts. 

Draft, finish, shrinkage allowances, shrink rule — Pat- 
tern for block of iron. 

Patterns with movable parts — Shifting fork, gibbed 
slide. 

Patterns leaving their own core — Hexagonal wrench, 
brass bushing, turnbuckle. 

Core-prints, tight and loose, with much draft when 
vertical. 

Core-boxes, semi-circular. 

Patterns with baked cores — Tool post, face plate. 



COURSE IN SHOP WORK— FIRST YEAR 



17 



Segment work — Face plate, pulleys. 
Diagonal parting of patterns, use. 
Special coring — Recess cored block. 
Molding in cores — Special pattern for chain. 
Pipe connections — Patterns having same centers — tee 
and elbow. 

Return bend — Double patterns. 

Note. — Experience has shown that in Carpentry, the making of 
the box and of three or four joints is the limit of work for the 
average pupil, for ten weeks. If the book rack is substituted, 
the book rack, two joints, and the hat rack strip can be made. 

In Cabinet Making, a glove box and a taboret or small table 
require all the efforts of the better pupils for the ten weeks. A 
glove bo.x and a hand mirror, or a hand mirror and hat frame or 
magazine holder are suggested as simpler projects. 

In the R. T. Crane School two cabinet making exercises are 
required from each pupil, one of which is left at the school, the 
other taken home. No charge is made for the wood. 



In Wood Turning, the two exercises between centers, a turned 
handle for wrench in pattern work, also the tool-post, or bushing, 
or face-plate pattern, and a rosette or chucking exercise are a full 
ten weeks' work for the average boy. The better pupils can turn 
the stocking darner and the inkstand or hand mirror or the four 
legs for small table in addition. 

In Pattern Making the rectangular block, in which allowance 
is made for finish, shrinkage and draft, and four other patterns, 
two at least with core boxes, are required. 

In all the school work careful explanations are made regarding 
the construction of such carpentry, cabinet work and pattern 
work, in the shop course, that is not made by any particidar 
class. The suggestion is made that different classes take up some- 
what different work, and that all classes profit by careful explana- 
tions of the others' work, or, one class may cover the whole course 
— in pattern making, for instance — by having the many exercises 
divided among the members of that one class. 

The different subjects in the course need not be taught in the 
order named. Carpentry must precede cabinet work, though 
turning may come between, or first on the list. Pattern work is 
left to the last ten weeks, that the pupil may have the better use 
of all his faculties in that subject, which requires so much care, 
thoughtfulness and accurate work. 



TREES 



White Pine 

(L('av( s iiiilrh riiiiiKitc) 
The white pine (Fig. L') is pmhaiily the most useful of 
all northern trees, and was fdnnerly \ery plentiful; 
one thinl of all the sawed liiniher and timber was white 




Fig. 2. — Leaves iind Cone of Wliite Pine 

pine, but it is now unobtainable in many places. Be- 
cause of its light weight, easy working qualities, the large 
and perfect pieces, pine is more used in carpentry and 
construction than other woods. 



White ])ine grows in the northern and northeastern 
United States, northwaril into Canada, and along 
the AUeghan}^ ^fountains. 

Tlie tree grows erect and straight — 75 to IfjO ft. high, 
and from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter — free from limbs to a 
great height. 

The leaves are in fives, slender and soft, evergreen, 
from o to 5 ins. long, in a loose, short sheath. The 
cones are slightly ciu'ved, and are 4 to (3 ins. long, and 
1 in. thick. 

The heart wood is cream white; the sap wood is nearly 
whiti — close, straight grained, free from knots anil 
resin. White jiine is easily worked, being soft, uni- 
form, light and clean; it .seasons well, and shrinks less 
than other ]iines. 

The woo(,l is used for matches and spars, and in 
carpentry and construction more than any other wood. 

First, clear white pine (best quality) costs from $80 
to $100 per M (1,000 sq. ft.). 

Stumpage (short, 4-ft. lengths), clear, costs only half. 

Seconds and poorer grades — knotty — cost from $30 
to $40 per :\I. 

White pine is used in the wood shop jarincipally for 
pattern making. It is the best wood known for that 
purpose, as it is easily worked anil hokis its shape. 



TREES 



19 



Gum 

(Leaves alternate) 
Sweet Gum or Red Gum (Fig. 3), and Sour Gum or 
Black Gum (Fig. 4), are unrelated trees, the sweet or 
red gum being a witch-hazel and the sour or black gum 




Fig. 3.— Leal' ;imi Fruit of 



Fig. 4. — Sour (luu 



a dog-wood. The trees arc distinct from each other, 
but both are calletl gum. The softer sweet gum resem- 
bles walnut, and is used in place of that wood for 
furniture and veneers. Sour gum is harder and lighter 
in color, splits with difficulty and is used in turning.s 
and small work. Both wood.s are cross-grained, close 
and strong, tough and difficult to season. 

The sweet gum tree has rough, round balls or seed 
pods, like the sycamore, but c()\'ered with somewhat 



sharp points. The leaves are pointed and starlike, 
like tho.se of the maple. The tree is called liquid-amber, 
because of. the gums excreted and used in medicine. 

The sour gum (Fig. 4) has bluish black, sour drupes, 
or fruit, with a single seed, and thick, oval leaves from 
2 to 4 ins. long. The leaves of both species turn to 
brilliant scarlet or crimson in the autumn. 

Sweet Gum 

Sweet gum grows in eastern United States to the 
Mississippi River, in Texas and Mexico. 

The tree is from 80 to 100 ft. high and from 2 to 4 ft. 
in diameter; the trunk is tall and straight, the leaves 
star-shaped, turning to bright scarlet in the autumn; 
it bears round, rough balls on long stems. 

The wood is like walnut, a rich brown color, with 
nearly white sap wood, close, cross-grained, heavy, soft 
to work; it shrinks and warps badly in seasoning. 

It is useil for table legs, wood turning, veneers, 
wooden jjlatcs, and shingles. 

.S'()///- Oiiin (Blach- (hiin) 

Sour gum grows in the same localities, but is not so 
large, and has bluish-black sour fruit with one seed. 

The wood is light brown, of fine grain, with inter- 
woven fibers, tough and hard to work because of the 
cross grains; it checks badly in seasoning. 

Gum trees arc now u.sed for railroad ties and are giving 
good .service; the wood is used also for wooden ware, 
rollers, and waiion hubs. 



20 



TREES 



First, clear gum costs from $35 to $38 per M. We 
use gum in the wood sliop for turning. It is a beautiful 
wood, but warps and twists too much for cabinet work. 

Tulip Tree 

{Yellow Poplar, White Wood — Leaves alternate, edges 
lobed) 

These names are interchangeable, and are applied to 
a soft, greenish-yellow wood, fine grained, suitable for 
carvings, wooden ware and boxes, as the wood nails 
without splitting. ^luch poplar or white wood is made 
into lumber and used in cheap furniture for drawer 
bottoms and shelving; it is u.sed also for carriage bodies. 

The tree bears a mass of tulip-shaped flowers in the 
spring, large and brilliant, yellowish-green in color, 
partly red; and develops a narrow greenish cone, which 
remains on the tree all winter. 

The tree grows very large and is one of the most useful 
of the American trees. 

The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes from 
the logs; some were large enough to carry twenty 
persons. 

The Tulip Tree (Fig. 5) grows in United States, east 
of Mississippi. 

It grows from 90 to 150 ft. high, and 5 to 7 ft. in 
diameter. 

The heart wood is light yellow, the sap wood nearly 
white, straight grained, close, free from knots, soft and 
light, easily worked and stands well. 



It is used for carriage bodies, wooden ware, pumps, 
boat building, and shingles. 




Fig. ,5. — Le.if of Tulip Tree 

First, clear poplar costs .$45 per ^1. We use j'ellow 
poplar for carpentry work, as it is much cheaper than 
pine, and can be worked easily. 

Oaks 

(Leaves alternate, edges lobcd) 

Oak trees grow in all countries north of the Equator 
and in high altitudes of those countries just south of 
the Equator. Oak wood has been much used for hun- 
dreds of years, for house and ship building, being 
plentiful and strong. After the Civil War ships were 
made of iron, and as the forests of softer woods were 
opened up, the use of oak was gradually discontinued. 

Oak is tough and durable, but is hard to season, as 
it warps and checks. The medullary rays of all oaks 



TREES 



21 



are very prominent, and when tlie wood is quarter 
sawed make beautiful rays or lights. 

Oak contains acids, causing stains in the wood. The 
bark also contains quantities of tannic acid, used to tan 
leather. 

The principal species are White Oak, Red or Black 
Oak, and Live Oak. 

The White Oaks are: White Oak (Fig. 6), Chestnut 
Oak, Cow Oak, Post Oak, Burr Oak, Pacific Post Oak, 
Swamp White Oak. 

The timber of these trees is the standard when com- 
paring other woods. If we say the strength of white 
pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak. 

The leaves of white oaks have rounded lobes. The 
acorns ripen in one season and fall off, and some are 
sweet, and are much sought after by farm animals, 
the cow oak of the Southern States being so named be- 
cause the acorns are eaten by cattle. 

The wood of white oak is most used of all very hard 
woods, so the supply is diminishing. 

The Red Oaks (Black Oaks) are: Red Oak (Fig. 7), 
Pin Oak, Spanish Oak, Yellow Oak, and Scarlet Oak, 
These trees are larger than the white oaks, and have 
a smoother and darker bark. 

The leaves have sharp, pointed lobes, the acorns are 
large and bitter, and are easily recognized by their 
shallow cups. 

The acorns of some of the red oaks remain on the tree 
through the first winter, and ripen and fall the second 
summer. 



The acorns of the yellow and scarlet oaks are smaller, 
with deeper cups. 

The wood is light brown or red, to pink. 

The Live Oaks are: Live Oak (Virginiana), California 
Live Oak, and Live Oak (Canyon). 

Live oaks (Fig. 8) grow in the South and Southwest, 
and California, and are not so large. 

The leaves of the live oaks have no indentations, ex- 
cepting those of the California live oaks, which are spiked 
like those of the holly. 

The leaves are evergreen, remaining on the tree all 
winter. 

The acorns ripen in one season. 

The wood is very heavy, one cubic foot weighing 
nearly 60 lbs., and is strong and very dm-able, and is 
used for ship building. 

The annual layers are hardly seen. 

White Oak 

White Oak grows in northern and eastern LTnited 
States. The tree is 60 to 90 ft. high and 3 to 5 ft. in 
diameter, with a gray bark and sweet, oblong acorns in 
rough cups, and rounded projections or lobes on leaves. 

The heart wood is brown in color, with whiter sap 
wood, annual layers marked, and medullary rays large 
and beautiful. 

The wood is liable to check unless seasoned slowly, is 
hard and heavy, tough and strong, most durable and 
elastic — so elastic that when steamed it may be bent to 
almost any shape. 



22 



'HIOKS 



Whito oak piles tif cild Loiiilnii liridfio, takoii U]i in 
ISl'7, after six ami nne-liaH' mil iiries (if use, were found 
sound. Oak under watei' or under f^round does not 
(dianfi'f' iiiuch. 

It is used for eal)inet niakin,a;. interior finishing, rail- 
way car construction, coo]>eraRe, shi]3 building. The 
bark contains tannin, used in tanning leather. Because 




Fig. 0.— White ():ik T.caf Mtul 
AcoiiiN 




Fig. 7.— Hof! (), 
Acor 



of the value of the timber and also because the acorns 
are eaten by animals, the white oak supply is diminishing. 

Cow oak is used in the South for agricultural imple- 
ments and wheels. The acorns are fed to cattle. 

Chestnut oak is used principally for railway ties as 
it is most durable in contact with the soil. 

The leaves are like those of the che.stnut. 



Post oak and Iron oak are used pi'iiicipally for rail- 
way ties and fencing. 

Burr oak, ()\er ("up oak. Mossy Cup oak have a mossy 
fringed border at the top of acorn cu]). 

Red Oak 

Red oak grows east of the Rocky Mountains. 

The tree is 90 to 100 ft. high, and 3 to 5 ft. in diameter; 
brown bark; the leaves have sharp, pointed projec- 
tions; the acorns are very large, in shallow cups. 

The heart wood has a reddish tinge; the sap wood 
is tlark; the annual rings are marked, medullary rays 
large, and the wood so coarse grained and porous as 
to unfit it for staves for large casks; but it is heavy 
and strong. 

It is used for furniture, and interior finish. 

Red oak grows faster than other oaks, anil the bark 
has more acid for tanning. 

Pin oak. Swamp oak. Water oak grow in moist places, 
and have many little secondary Ijranches like pins, and 
are easily distinguished. 

Sjianish oak grows in the South; the liark is very 
rich in tannin. 

]5!ack oak or Yellow oak grows very large, lias bitter 
yellow acorns, and the yellow inner bark is used for 
making a yellow '.lyv. 

Live Oak 

Live oak grows in the Southern States, Cuba, Central 
America. Mexico and California. The tree resembles 



TREES 



23 



the apple tree and is only 45 to 60 ft. high and 2 to 4 ft. 
in diameter. The foliage is evergreen. 

The heart wood is yellow or brown, the annual 
layers can hardly be seen, the medullary ray.s are large, 
and the wood is strong, tough and very durable. 

It is used for ship building, especially for knees 
and crooked timbers, as the tree does not grow tall 
or straight. 




Fig. 8. — Live Oak Leaf and 
Acorns 



Fig. 9. — Sycamore Leaf 
and Fruit 



Before steel and iron came into use for ship building, 
live oak was the wood chiefly used for that purpose. 
The American government bought great tracts of land, 
containing live oaks, so that the U. S. navy should have 
the necessary timber with which to build ships. 

First, clear oak, quarter sawed, costs $75 per I\I. We 
use oak in the wood shop for cabinet making. 



Sycamore (Button- wood, Button-ball) 

{Leaves alternate, edges toothed) 

The Sycamore (Fig. 9) is one of the largest of the 
American trees, growing over 100 ft. in height and some- 
times 10 ft. in diameter. The leaves are very large, 
some over a foot long. The fruit is a rough ball or 
button ball, about 1 in. in diameter, hanging on a 
stem 4 ins. long — these remain on the tree all winter. 

The wood is cross grained, of a complicated structure, 
fibers interwoven, making it hard to smooth, but no wood 
is more beautiful, e.specially if quarter sawed. 

The bark of the tree does not stretch as the tree 
grows, but falls off, exposing the inner bark in large, 
white patches, so that the tree appears to be shedding 
its bark as well as its leaves. 

The Sycamore grows in the JIissi.s.sippi Valley east- 
ward to the Atlantic. The tree is from 90 to 120 ft. 
high, and from 5 to 10 ft. in diameter. It has large 
leaves, and rough balls or fruit, hanging on long stems. 

The heart wood is a red-brown, the sap wood nearly 
white, close grained and cross grained; it will not 
split, is difficult to smooth, and medullary rays are 
conspicuous and beautiful when quarter sawed. 

It is used for furniture, cabinet work, butcher 
blocks, tobacco boxes, and interior finishing. 

First, clear, red sycamore, quarter sawed, costs $65 
to $70 per M. 

We use sycamore in the wood shop for cabinet 
making. 



24 



TREES 



Maples 

(Leaves opposite, edges toothed) 

Maples grow in all the continents north of the 
Equator. 

The Sugar Maple or hard maple is one of the principal 
trees of North America. 

The wood has a fine, close texture, and is even used 
for type; it is so beautifully marked by bird's-eyes, 
blisters and curls that it is prized by the cabinet maker. 

The wood is used for everything requiring wood of 
hard, clo.se grain — flooring, furniture, shoe lasts and 
shoe pegs, car and ship making, and axles. 

Sugar is found in the sap of the sugar maple; 25 
gallons of sap may be taken from a tree in a season, 
yielding about 6 lbs. of sugar. 

Maples may be told by their two-seeded fruit or keys, 
the two wings of which spread differently in the hard 
maple and soft maple. 

The leaves turn from green to red, and other brilliant 
colors in some species, and from green to yellow with no 
red, in others. 

Sugar Maple {Hard Maple) 

The sugar maple (Fig. 10) grows in the United States 
east of the Mississippi. 

The tree is 75 to 90 ft. high and from 1 to 3 ft. in 
diameter. 

The wings of the keys are less than right angles, and 
ripen in the autunui; one seed cavity is usually empty. 
The leaves turn to a brilliant red and other colors. 



The heart wood is white, much of it brown; the sap 
wood is whiter, very compact and close grained, with 
markings of curls, bird'.s-eyes or blisters; it is very 
hard, wearing evenly, tough and strong. 

It is used for furniture, veneers, show-bill t}"pe, 
flooring, and lasts and pegs for shoes. 




Fig. 10.— Sugar Maple Leaf 
and Keys 



Fig. 11. — Silver Maple Leaf 
and Keys 



Silver Maple {Soft Maple) 

The Silver Maple (Fig. 11) grows from the Mississippi 
Valley east, and into Canada. 
The tree is from 50 to 80 ft. high, and from 2 to 4 



TREES 



25 



ft. in diameter. The maple key has long, stiff, more 
than right-angled wings; the leaves are white under- 
neath, and turn yellow in autumn. 

The heart wood is brown, and the sap wood white, 
compact, close grain, light in weight and more easily 
worked than hard maple. 

It is used for wooden ware, interior finishing, and 
turned work. 

There are only small quantities of sugar in the sap. 

First, clear white maple costs from $60 to $65 per M. 

We use maple in the shop for cabinet making. 

Birches 

(Leaves alternate, edges toothed) 

Birches grow in Asia, Europe, and North America, 
forming large forests in Canada and the United States. 
The bark is water-tight and pliable, and contains resinous 
oils, making it durable, so that it is intact after the wood 
inside fallen trees has rotted away. 

The bark can be separated into thin layers, and 
was used to write upon as early as 600 years before 
Christ. 

Houses are covered with the bark, and utensils and 
ropes made of it. The American Indians made their 
canoes, tents, troughs and buckets of it. 

The wood is fine grained, very stiff and strong. The 
leaves of the several different kinds of birches are 
similar, but the bark of each is different, and gives the 
trees the names: White Birch, Paper Birch, Red Birch, 



Yellow Birch, and Sweet or Cherry Birch, the leaves, 
bark and twigs of which are spicy and sweet. 

The Paper or White birch grows farther north than 
any other American deciduous tree. 

While Birch {Paper Birch, Canoe Birch) 

White birch (Fig. 12) grows in northern United States, 
Canada and Alaska. 

The trees are from 50 to 70 ft. high, and 1 to 2 ft. 
in diameter. 




Fig. 12. — Paper Birch Leaves 

It has smooth, white bark on trunk and limbs, which 
splits freely into paperlike layers. 

The heart wood is reddish brown, the sap wood white, 
close grained, strong and tough. 

It is used for paper pulp, and shoe lasts and pegs. 



26 



TREES 



Red Birch {River Birch) 

Red birch (Fig. 13) grows in ilississippi Valley, 
eastward. 

The tree is 40 to 75 ft. high, and 1 to 3 ft. in diameter. 

The bark is dark, red-brown, and scales off. 

The heart wood is light brown, the sap wootl white, 
close grained, hard and strong. 




Fiu. 13. — Red Birch Leaves 



The wood stains easily and resembles mahogany 
when colored. Curly birch is most beautiful and is 
used to make the finest furniture. 

It is used for furniture, interior finishing, and wooden 
ware. 



Sweet Birch {Cherry Birch) 

The Sweet birch (Fig. 14) grows east of the Missis- 
sippi, into Canatla. 

The tree is 50 to 75 ft. high, and 2 to 3 ft. in diameter. 

It has dark, red-brown bark, which does not sepa- 
rate into layers. The leaves and bark are sweet and 
spicy. 




Cherrj' Birch Leaves 



The heart wood is dark brown, red colored; the sap 
wood is light brown, close grained, stiff and strong. 

It is used for furniture and wootlen ware. 

The wood is called ^Mountain ^lahogany, Mahogany 
Birch, in the South. 

First, clear red birch costs .$40 i)er M. 

We use birch for cabinet nuiking in the wood sho]). 



WOOD 



Wood has been and will bo the most widely useful 
material for construction. Tliere iia.s been a lack of 
knowledge about wood, even if it is so common, and it 
has been much wasted. Iron and steel are better known, 
but wood is a complicated structure, and two pieces cut 
from the same tree may vary in strength, hardness and 
durability, and in keeping straight. Different kinds of 
trees yield different woods — the soft, straight grained 
white pine, the hard curly maple, the tough, elastic 
hickory. The way the log was cut, whether cjuarter 
sawed or otherwise, and the way the wood is piled and 
kept, influence its behavior and its quality. 

Carpenters and builders use pine, because it is so 
plentiful, can be had in large, straight pieces, is light in 
weight so it can be shipped cheaply and handled easily; 
it is elastic, strong, works easily, nails easily; it is used 
in work that does not need to have a fine appearance. 

The furniture maker uses woods that are hard and 
have a beautiful grain, that are strong and tough, and 
will keep a good joint and take a fine finish, since he 
puts the greatest amount of work on his wood, and does 
not care if it is costly. Such woods as mahogany, 
cherry, walnut, oak, maple, sycamore, and birch are 
cabinet woods. 

The wagon maker wants hickory, which is hard, tough 
and elastic. 



The carriage builder, cooper and shingle maker need 
straight grained, easy splitting woods, such as hickory, 
oak and selected pine. 

Structure 

The stems of plants consist of three different tissues. 

1st — The Pith, or Medulla, consisting of soft and largo 

thin-walled cells, full of sap or other nourishing ma- 




FiG. 1.").— Scclion of Silver 
Maple (:il the end of the 
first year) 



Fici. 10. — Section of Silver 
Maple (at the end of the 
first year, showing pith, 
wood, and bark, magnified) 



terial the first year, while growing, and becoming 
light, dry, and empty as the tree grows larger every 
year. 
2d — The Layer of Wood — traversed by the medullary 
rays — composed of woody tissue — many sided, thin- 



28 



WOOD 



walled cells — some large, open ducts — some spiral 
ducts. The outer part of this layer is the live part 
of the tree. 

3d — The Bark or Rind — green in young plants, but 
soon covered with bast cells; they are like wood cells, 
but longer, larger, more elastic, and thicker walled. 

These long fibers make linen in flax and corilage from 

hemp. 




Fig. 17. — Section of Silver Maple at the end of the first year, 
highly magnified: a, medullary ray; 6, pith; c, spiral vessels of 
medullary sheath; d, h. dotted ducts; e, counter duct; /.wood; 
g, annular duct; i, inner fibrous bark; j, green bark; fc, corky 
envelope; I, outer bark, epidermis. (See Figs. 15, 10) 



The cambium layer is the living and growing part 
of the tree; it is the layer between the woody tissue 
and the bark. The cells of this layer multiply by 
division, making new wood cells on the inside and 
new bast cells or bark on the outside. 

Annual rings show the amount of growth each year. 



Each ring is caused by the darker, closer, slower grow- 
ing summer wood on the outside, showing against the 
lighter, more open, softer, ciuicker growing spring wood. 









Fig. is. — Vertical section of 
Maple Branch (at the end 
of the first year, showing 
medullary ray from pith to 
bark, magnified) 




Fig. 19. — Cress section of me- 
dullary rays (magnified) 



Sap wood consists of the last few rings still alive, 
whose cells are open to let the sap flow through to feed 
all parts of the tree, and also to store the food, worked 
over by the leaves, for winter's use. 



WOOD 



29 



Heart wood is the wood inside the sap wood, it is 
dead, so far as receiving nourishment goes; this wood 
is hard and firm, and supports and stiffens the tree. 




Fig, 20. — Cross and Vertical section.^ of stem at the end of the 
first year (magnified) : a, bark; b. cambium layer; c, wood; d. 
epidermis; e, corky bark; /, green bark; g, fibrous bark; h, inner 
bark; i, cambium" layer; j, k, dotted ducts; I, spiral duct; 7n, 
pith; n, medullary ray 



Medullary or Pith Rays — Beside the vertical ceils, 
there are horizontal cells, extending from the pith to 
the bark, radiating from the pith in all directions, bind- 
ing the vertical cells or fibers together. 



Food 
The food of a tree is the mineral and chemical matter 
taken up from the ground by the sap or water, through 
the roots, the stem or trunk, the limbs, and finally the 
leaves, where it is exposed to the light and sun, and 
chemically changed, then carried down again to feed the 
tree. 




Fig. 21. — Board with edge quarter 
sawed. The annual rings shown 
on the toil end of the board ap- 
pear on the face of the board as 
grain; the medullary or pith 
rays appear on the edge as rays 
or lights 



The water, or sap, is taken up by the little ro it hairs 
which grow on the rootlets, and carries various mineral 



30 



WOOD 



compounds, whii'h it holds in solution. These com- 
pounds are the earth}' parts of the tree, which reappear 
in the form of ashes, when the tree is burned. The water, 
which contains these compounds, goes straight to the 
leaves, in which the most important part of the feeding 
of the tree takes place — the taking up and breaking up 
of carbonic acid gas, which with the water forms starch, 
and W'hich, combined with the mineral in the water, 
forms the more complex food of the tree. 

This change to starch can go on only in the presence 
of sunlight and heat, and also through the action of 
chlorophyll, a substance that absorbs and decomposes 
carbon dioxide, resulting in the throwing off of oxygen 
and the formation of new organic substances. It is 
this substance, chlorophyll, that is the chief means by 
which mineral materials are changed into food, so nearly 
all plant and animal life depends on them for existence. 
The little plant cells containing chlorophyll, under the 
influence of the sunlight, comljine this carbon with the 
oxygen and liydrogen in the water into new com- 
pounds, ill which nitrogen and the earthy parts — mag- 
nesium, calcium, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium 
and chlorine are present — these being called essential 
elements, because trees and other plants must have 
them in order to be thrifty. 

Other elements are also absorbed, if in the soil, in 
soluble form, but none of them are used separately and 
alone, as they rarely exist as so]iaratc elements, but arc 
blended lii^ctlicr. 

The plant oljlains both liyilrogen and oxygen in walcr 



— potassium, nitrogen and oxygen are often united in the 
form of potassium nitrate, a very valuable food for plants. 

Trees can absorb these mineral foods only when they 
are in solution in the water taken up by the root hairs. 
Many compounds of soil, which contain good food ele- 
ments, are insoluble in soil water, and therefore cannot 
be used. Potassium, one of the essential elements, is 
often in combination with aluminum and silicon, and 
other elements, so as to be insoluble and useless. But 
chemical changes are slowly going on in the soil, by 
which insoluble compounds are made into soluble 
compounds. Cultivation anil fertilization hasten .such 
changes, and that is why fields should l:ie plowed and 
harrowed and worked o\er. 

These foods are first tligested in the leaves, just as 
food is digested in the body, antl are then sent to all 
living parts of the roots, stem and crown, where they 
pass through another process of digestion, and are then 
used at once, or stored away until neeilcd. 

Density 

Wood is ilcnsc when the -wfiody fillers are multi]ilied 
and packed close together, without lissurcs between. 
Such compactness gives to the wood a hard, smooth 
appearance, as seen in box-wood, apple-tree, maple. 

The density of wood may be found by making prisms 
of the wood, which can be easily measured — then taking 
the weight of the ])rism.s. The ratio of the weight to 
that of the same volume of water will lie the density. 
This densitv varies in different blocks of wood from the 



WOOD 



31 



aiiio tiTc, dcpeiiiliii<;' on the form and position of tlie 
fibers, and the ]iai't of the tree from which the samples 
wTre taken. Heart wood is much more dense than sap 
wood, and the h)wer part of the trunk of tlie tree is 
nirtre dense than the upper part or hranehes. 

Densitj' also depends upon the difference in structure 
of the cells — upon the amount of solid matter in them, 
or the water and air which they contain. The substance 
formhig the outside of each cell is cellulose, and in this 
is intrusted harder matter, which is found more in 
hard Wood tlian soft — is abundant in fruit stones anfl 
in certftin pears; it is more abundant in heart wood 
than in sap wood — heavy and hard woods contain it in 
greater quantities than light or white wood; it contains 
more hydrogen than cellulose, and having more carbon 
and also inore hydrogen, its combustion produces more 
heat than cellulose, and this is the reason why hard, 
tlense wood gives more heat when burned than soft 
wood; the density of wood seems to measure the 
degree of combustibility. 

To find the density of wood fibers, the wood is re- 
duced to a fine powder by filing with a file or rasp, 
dried at 100° F., then placed in a small bottle full of 
water from which air is exhausted, and left for some 
time. All wood fiber has the same specific gravity, 
equal to 1.5 — iron wood, oak, poplar — the extreme 
variations all included between 1.51 and 1.52. 

The comparative weight of some woods and an equal 
volume of water is as follows: 

Pomegranate, 1.35; ebony, 1.33; box tree of Holland, 



1.32; green and l)lack ebony, 1.20; core of oak, GO yrs. 
old, 1.17; English o;d<, .93; beech, .,85; apple-tree, 
.79; maple, .75; ehei'ry, .75; mahogany of St. Do- 
mingo, .75; northern pine, .73; birch, .72; sycamore, 
.59; Honduras mahogany, .56; white pine, .56; pop- 
lar, .3S; cork tree, .38; elder tree pith, .07. 




Fio. 22. — Section of tree: a, dornuint bud.s; b, trace to pith; c, 
undeveloped buds; d, limb dead for four years; e, limb which 
.started two years ago from dormant bud; /, normal limb 

Growth 

Since the food is digested or changed in the leaves, 
trees should have a large crown, or top, to grow well. 

But a large top means large branches, which spoil the 
trunk of a tree for lumber. 

The branches form knots, by growing out from the 
inside of the trunk or stem, when the tree is young, and 
being surrounded each year by a laver of new wood. 



32 



WOOD 



So trees are allowed to grow close together. Small 
branches grow out as usual, but being shaded by 
the other trees, getting no sunlight, the leaves send no 
nourishment to the branches, which soon die and fall 
off, leaving the trunk round and straight — making clear 
lumber, free from knots. 

Growth of trees depends on kind of soil, which con- 
tains its food supply or the proper amount of water 
to make it soluble, that the roots may take it up. 

Trees can be cut for fence posts in 12 or 15 years. 
The hardy catalpa grows large enough for railroad ties 
in 15 years, while it takes oak 30 years; trees for fine, 
wide lumber take from 60 to 100 or 200 years. 

Cutting 

Trees should be cut in the fall and winter, because 
then there is very little movement of sap. 

Moisture in Wood 

100 lbs. of green wood contain about 25 lbs. of water, 
74 lbs. of wood and 1 lb. of ashes. 

Wood must be seasoned or dried before using, by 
piling it under shelter, in such a way that air may get 
to all sides of the boards, or by drying it in a kiln — a 
hot room. 

Shrinkage in Wood 

Since the wood cells have thick walls and thin walls, 
and these are intermixed, and since spring wood shrinks 
more than summer wood in the same year's growth, wood 
strains and warps as it dries out. 



Since the summer wood is the newer wood, and also 
the larger part of each year's growth, the wood shrinks 
as shown in Figures 23-26. 

Then since the fibers in the medullary rays shrink 
vertically, and the fibers in the annual rings horizontally, 
strains take place at right angles to each other, that 
cause the pith or medullary rays to separate from the 




Fig. 26 Fig. 27 

fibers and thus make checks or shakes in the wood, 
especially if it is made to dry too rapidly (Fig. 27). 

Grain of Wood 
The small fibers, generally parallel to each other, 
give us the grain of the wood. Separating these 
fibers, or splitting the wood, is easier than breaking 
the fibers across. 



WOOD 



33 



Coarse grained wood has open, thick fibers; fine 
grained wood has close, small fibers. 

If fibers lie parallel to the axis of the trunk the wood 
is straight grained, but often the direction is spiral or 
twisted around the tree (look at telephone and telegraph 
poles), making the board plane smoothly, with the 
grain on the front edge, and directly against the grain 
on back edge of the same face. 

Then the fibers are oblique in one direction, and the 
next few layers oblique in the opposite direction, as in 
sj'camore and gum, making cross or twisted grain. 

The layer of wood under the bark is not always 
smooth; the new layer fills the depressions, and also 
adds to the high places, growing on in waves, making 
the wavy or curly grain. 

When these elevations and depressions are very small, 
a board cut from such growth shows little rings or 
"bird's-eyes," seen in maple. Dormant buds also make 
small elevations, which, covered j'ear after year bj^ new 
wood, appear as little rings, each with a center, when 
the board is cut. 

Drying 

j\Iany logs, as soon as cut, are rolled to some stream 
and tied together in rafts, or thrown into water near 
the saw mill. This soaking helps clean the wood by 
washing out the mineral matter, which is soluble. 
Many logs are sawed immediately after being felled. 
Before using, the boards and planks must be dried and 
seasoned, to remove the moisture. 

Pine, spruce, cypress, cedar are dried fresh from the 



saw by artificial drying in a steam heated room or kiln, 
allowing four days for boards one inch thick. 

Hard woods — oak, ash, maple, birch, cherry, sycamore, 
are "air-seasoned," piled in great piles with cross- 
pieces between each layer, for 3 to 6 months, and even 
2 or 3 years to allow the wood to dry more gradually; 
then it is carefully piled in the kiln, heated to 160° or 
180° F., and dried for 6 to 12 days, and sometimes much 
longer, for one inch boards; thicker lumber requires a 
much longer time. The dry wood, when exposed to 
the outside air, immediately takes up moisture again. 

100 lbs. of pine wood, from the heart of the tree, will 
lose from 15 to 25 lbs. of water in drying; and in 100 
lbs. of hardwood — oak, maple, sycamore — the heart 
wood will lose from 30 to 40 lbs. of water. 

Hard and Soft Wood 

Wood of the broad leaved trees, like oak and sycamore, 
is called hard wood, while wood of needle leaved trees 
or conifers, like pine or spruce, is called soft wood, 
though the division is misleading, as poplar, the wood 
of a broad leaved tree, is much softer than Georgia pine, 
a conifer. 

Stiffness 

Heavy wood is stiffer than light wood, because of the 
closer, finer, more compact fibers. Dry wood is also 
one third more stiff than wet wood. A joist or heavy 
timber laid with its yearly rings vertical, is stiffer than 
if the vearlv rings are horizontal. 



34 



WOOD 



Products 

Pines and fir trees cdiitain resin in spaces between 
the annual rings. Tliis resin or pitch is obtahied by 
cutting or bleeding the tree, the resin flowing into a little 
box or pocket cut in the tree. This is dipped up and 
put into a still and heated, the hot vapor condensing 
into turpentine, and the thicker portion forming resin. 

The wood and Ijark of most trees contain tannin, 
used to tan leather. 

Wood fiber is manufactured into pulp, with the help 
of chemicals, from ■.vhich paper is made. 

Milling 

"Timber" includes large sizes — joists and beams. 

"Planks" are over one inch thick. 

"Boards" are one inch thick, or less. 

"Clear" lumber is free from knots or sap wood. 

" Dressed " or "surfaced " or " sized " lumber is planed 
smooth, and is ordered — "100 ft. 1st clear, s2s" (size 
two sides). 

Measurement 

Lumber is measured by the " board foot," which means 
a piece 12 in. square antl 1 in. thick. It is sold by 
the 1,000 ft. ,^I., board measure (15. ^I.), at so much per 
thousand. 

500 ft. board measure, costing $45 per thousand, 
would be ordered "500 ft. B. M. at $45 per M." 

Boards less than 1 in., and veneers, are sold by srjuare 
foot, face measure. 



Piles are sold by running fee( — 40 ft. or 50 ft. piles. 

Fence lioards and studs are scild by the piece. 

Lath and pickets and shingles are sokl by the bundle. 

Values 

Some very valualilc wood is sold by tlie pound. 

Mahogany is from $400 to .KOO to $1,000 per :\I.— kiln 
dried. 

Cherry is $180 to $200 per :\1. 

Oak— Q. S. (quarter sawed), $80 to $90 per M. 

Sycamore, Q. S., $00 to $80 per M. 

Gum, $35 per M. 

White pine, 1st clear, $70 to $80 to $100 per M. 

" Quarter sawed " or "rift sawed" lumber is lumber 
sawed so that the face of the boards is parallel to the 
medullary rays, or nearly so (Fig. 28). 




Boards sawed in this way do not warp or twist much, 
as the yearly rings are on edge, through the board 
(Fig. 29). 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 



35 



Bastard lumber is lumber sawed so that the yearly 
rings are somewhat parallel to the face of the boards, 
and as the spring wood and summer wood in each yearly 
ring are different in structure (the summer wood is 
firmer and darker in color), markings are made on the 
face of the boards (Fig. 30). 

Boards sawed in this way warp badly, as the outer 
layers of ^^■ood are vounger and newer wood, and shrink 




much more than the older layers, causing the board to be 
pulled back, or ''warp" toward the outside of the tree 
(.see Fig. 30). 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 
Wood 

1. What can you say of the usefulness of wood? 

2. What kind of wood does a carpenter and builder 

desire? 

3. What special qualities should the wood used by a 

furniture maker possess? 



4. What hartl, elastic wood is used by the wagon 

maker? 

5. Is the wood sawed or split for wagon wheel spokes? 

6. What beautiful wood is used for heavy casks and 

barrels? Why? 

Structure 

7. Name and describe the three tissues or iJarts of 

the stems of plants. 
S. Is the heart of a tree dead? 
9. What are medullary rays? 

10. What is the live part of a tree? 

11. Describe the bark. 

12. Of what is hemp rope made? Linen? From 

what part of the tree does this substance come? 

13. Make a sketch showing a stem one year old, mag- 

nified sufficiently to show the different tissues, 
the cambium laj^er, and the medullary rays. 

14. Describe the cambium layer. 

15. What are annual rings? How are they caused? 

How may we tell the age of a tree? 

16. What is sap wood? Does it show on a board? 

17. What part of a tree makes the good lumber? 

Food 

18. What is the food of a tree? Tell how the tree 

digests its food. 

19. How does water or sap enter the tree? 

20. What does the water take with it? 

21. What are wood ashes? 



36 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 



22. What importaiit digestive action takes place in the 

leaves? 

23. Does this action take place at night? 

24. What is chlorophyll? 

25. Explain carefiillj' why nearly all animal, as well 

as plant life, depends on chlorophyll. 

26. Name some of the essential mineral elements. 

27. Name a compound which is a valuable food for 

plants. 

28. What is aluminum? 

29. What necessary sharpening apjjaratus is almost 

pure silicon? 

30. Why do farmers cultivate the ground? 

Growth 

31. Do wiile-spreading shade trees make good lumber? 

Why? 

32. What are knots? Loose knots ami tight knots? 

33. Make a sketch of a section of a trunk, showing the 

cause of a loose knot — of a tight knot. 

34. Why should a tree have plenty of water? Would 

a good soil and very little water suffice? 
3.j. How long will it take for trees to grow large enough 

for fence posts? 
Does oak grow as fast as catalpa? How soon may 

a catalpa be cut for railroad ties? 
How long will a tree ha\-e to grow to protluce a 

fine, wide board? 

Cutting 

30. When should trees be cut? \\h\'! 



Moisture 

37. In green wood, what is the proportion of moisture? 

38. Wliat is meant by seasoning wood? 

Shrinkage 

39. What causes shrinkage and working in wood? 

40. What causes checks and shakes in wood? Illus- 

trate by sketch. 

Grain 

41. What is meant by the grain of wood? 

42. Name a coarse grained wood. A fine grained wood. 

43. Explain how cross or twisted grained sycamore or 

gum grows. 

44. AVhat forms the Ijcautiful, curly grain in some 

woods? 

45. Tell how bird's-eye mai>le grows. 

Drying 

40. Name a very general method of cleaning logs before 
sawing. 

47. Can boards, or any other wootl, be used to advan- 

tage immediately after sawing? 

48. What woods may be dried in a heated room or 

kiln fresh from the saw? 

49. How long does it take to kiln-dry 1 inch boards oi 

this kind? 

50. What is air dr> ing? How long does it take? 

51. Why should hard woods be air seasoned first? 



SUGdESTIVE giESTlONS 



37 



52. Name the woods with which you are familiar, that ! 

rei|uire air chying, then kiln dryintt. { 

53. How long does kiln drying take for 1 inch thick i 

hard wood? [ 

54. How much weight in moisture is lost by thoroughly 

seasoning 100 lbs. of pine? How nuich in 100 Ihs. 
hard wood? 

Stiffness 

55. Is heavy or light wood best for stiffness? Why? 

Which is stiff er — dry or wet wood? 

56. How may the annual rings be laid in heavy timbers 

so as to add to the stiffness? 

Products 

57. What is resin? Explain carefully how it is gath- 

ered, and how t\\'o ^-ery common products are 
made from it. 

58. What is tan bark, and for what is it used? 

59. Of what is some paper made? 

Milling 

60. Give the sizes of the following: timber, planks, 

boards. 

61. What is meant by clear lumber? 

62. What name is given lumber that is planed smooth, 

and how is such lumber ordered? 



Measurement 

63. How is lumber measured? What dimension is a 

board foot? 

64. How is lumber generally sold in quantities? 

65. What sizes are sold by face measure? 

66. How are piles sold? 

67. What lumber is sold by the piece? 

68. What lumber is .sold by the bundle? 

Value 

69. Can you name a wood sold by the pound? 

70. Give, approximately, the value of a thousand feet 

of mahogany — cherry — oak — sycamore — gum — 
white iiine. 



Quarter Sawed Lumber 

71. What is quarter sawed lumber? Explain by 

sketch. 

72. Why is lumber sawed in this way more valuable? 

73. What is bastard lumber? Explain carefully why 

lumber sawed in this way does not keep true. 
Is such lumber good for flooring? 

74. Show in a sketch just how, and in what direction, 

this bastard board will warp. 



CARPENTRY 



SAWING 

Get from the lumber pile a board, or part of a board, 
of white wood, that is at least 8 ins. or 9 ins. wide, 
ami 1 in. or I in. tliick. 




Select your cross-cut saw. 

Notice that the teeth of this saw are cut in the blaile 
as in Fig. 31, having the front of the tooth, 0, one third 




Fig. 32 

of the length of the whole tooth, 
the amount of pitch of the tooth. 



This one third shows 
Saws for general use, 



to cut hard wood — cherry, oak, maple, as well as pine 
— have teeth cut in this shape, with one third of the 
tooth slanting forward. 

To show why this slant or pitch is necessary, a board 
is shown (Fig. 32), across which we wish to make a deej) 
mark with a knife. Holding the knife nearly perpen- 
dicular as at B, it will push harder and will not cut so 
smoothly as if it was inclined forward, as at A. It 
follows that the cutting edge of a cross-cut saw should 
incline forward as at 0, rather than stand perpendicular 
as at D. 




1 



'\. 



Setting Saws 

All saws are set — that is, (he extreme points of the 
teeth are hammered o\or, one tooth to the right, the 
next to the left — to make a wide enough path, or kerf, 
for the blade of tlie saw. Always joint your saw before 
setting, by making it perfectly straight along the points 
of the teeth, by filing gently with a long, straight file, 
held lengthwise with the saw. 

The kerf, or path of the saw, must be considered and 



CARPENTRY 



39 



measured when cutting several pieces of a certain 
length from a board. For example, can you saw from 
a board that is 4 ft.-O ins. long, four (4) pieces 12 ins. 
long? 



kerf 



■^ ^■-O" i. 

Fig. 35 

Cross-cut Saw Filing 

To file your cross-cut saw, file from the heel (handle) 
to the point, holding your file horizontally, and at about 
45° with the length of the saw (Fig. 36), filing only every 
second tooth, from one side, reversing the saw to file the 
intervening teeth. A sharp knife edge is thus filed on 
the front of each tooth, the fiber of the wood being cut 
twice, by a knife tooth, on each side of the saw. Also 
a fine wire edge is made by the file on each side of the 
saw, if alternate teeth are filed from both sides. 
This wire edge, if wholly on one side, would make the 
saw run off your line, as the wire-edge side would cut 
faster. A saw which has been run against a nail on one 
side, will also run off the line, as the sharp side cuts 
faster. 

If the saw runs off the line after careful filing, it may 
be made to saw straight by la_ying it on the flat beiicli 
top and gently rubbing the sharper side with the oil- 
stone or a fine file. 




To saw smoothly in hard wood, a fine-toothed cross- 
cut saw is necessary, with about 10 points or teeth to 
the inch. 

Select your rip saw. 




Fig. 37 

The teeth are cut in the rip saw as in Fig. 37, with the 
front of the teeth square or at right angles with the edge 
of the saw, having no slant or pitch. The rip saw hav- 
ing only to separate the fibers, generally has larger 
teeth than the cross-cut, thereby cutting faster with 
the same amount of power or muscle. 

Set the rip saw by hammering every alternate tooth 
to the right or left. 



40 



CARPENTRY 



Having no fibers to cut across, the rip saw is filed 
square across, filing one half the teeth from each side, 
making of each tooth a small, sharp chisel, each chisel 
taking off its thin shaving. 

The rip saw should be held at an angle of about 45° 
with the board being cut, as shown in Fig. 38. This 
makes a shearing cut. 




To rip snino(hl\' in hard wood, a fine toothed rip saw 
is necessary with N teeth or ])oiiits to the inch. 

The Back Saw 

The back saw- is a cross-cut saw, with much finer teeth, 
and is filed like a cross-cut, to give a cutting edge to the 
front of the tooth. The blade is made very thin to cut 
a narrow kerf, and is strengthened by a stiff back. The 
back saw is used for much finer work than either the 
cros.s-cvit or ri]) saw, and should have 12 teeth or points 
to the inch. 

Examine the eiul of \-our lioard to sec that there are 



no shakes or cracks. Pleasure off from a good end 8 ins. 
With a large steel square and a sharp knife (no lead 
pencil) make a clear, sharp line across the board. Saw 
to the line, and just outside, that your instructor may 
see a 3^ in. deep knife cut on the top edge of the end and 
the rough saw cuts below, as shown in Fig. 39. 




J\Iark oft' with knife and large scpiare f in. from each end 
of your 8-in. board, knifing across the face, and down 
both edges, leaving space between knife marks 6J ins. 
long (hold this short board in vise while sawing). 

Saw off both ends to knife lines, and show your in- 
structor a board exactly 6^ ins. long, with a clean knife 
cut on face and edges of both ends (Fig. 40). 







Measure oH' the center of your board lengthwise. See 
that your gauge is sharp, then gauge a light center line. 
Rip to one side, but against this gauge line. Set your 
gauge so that it measures with your rule exactly ^ in. 
Gauge on one edge of each piece a light, sharp line. Rip 

Note. — The drawiiiRs on saws arc taken from Disston's 
"Hand-Book for Lumbermen." 



CARPENTRY 



41 



a 2-iii. strip from each piece, and show your in- 
structor two pieces each -J in. wide — one piece showing 
two gauge lines, and the other one gauge line along edge. 
i\Iark off with knife and try-square four (4) j in. 
long blocks on one of these strips, knifing all around 
the strip. Saw with back saw, holding strip in vise or 
bench hook, and show your instructor four blocks, with 
a clean knife-line all around one end. 

Grinding 

The grindstone does not sharpen your plane-bit or 
chisel. The oil-stone sharpens. The bevel or grind on 
your plane-bit (Fig. 41) should be ts in. or J in. long; on 



your chisel (Fig. 42) | in. or ^ in. long, the length of 
bevel depending on the temper of the bit or chisel, and 



the hardness of the material to be cut. If the bevel or 
grind has been shortened and rounded over as at (Fig. 







»^ 



Fig. 4.3 



43), by wearing away the end of your tool in sharpening 
on the oil-stone, then grind away the steel at until the 
right bevel is restored. 



The side of the grindstone running away from you is 
the safe side at which to grind (Fig. 44), though the stone 
grinds tools more quickly on the other side. 




Grind your tool perfectly scjuarc and straight across, 
and a tool well ground should last one month before the 
bevel again gets so short as to make the chisel or plane- 
bit cut hard. The tool must be shown to your in- 
structor and his permission secured before grinding. 

Sharpening 

Hold the plane-bit or chisel on the oil-stone with both 
hands, at such an angle as to feel the grind or bevel 




Fig. 4.5 

lying on the stone (Fig. 45). Use the whole stone from 
one end to the other. 

Sharjien only long enough to turn up a feather edge 



42 



CARPENTRY 



on the flat side of your bit. Feel for it. Press a little 
harder on each edge of the bit, to make a heavier feather 
toward the edges, which will round your bit slightly 
across the whole end. Then turn the bit over, holding 
it perfectly flat on stone (Fig. 46), and rub gently. 




Fig. 40 

Continue to turn it over and liack, rubbing gently to bend 
feather off. Whet the bit on your hand. Examine 
it closely for any feather. See that it is not too round- 
ing across the whole end. Tlie width of a single hair, 
higher in the center of the bit, enables you to plane off 
a shaving without the edges digging. 

Cover or Breaker 

Screw on your cover A in. back from the sharpened 
end, or even a scant tV in. back, for ver\' straight grained 
soft wood. For curly or cross-grained wood the thick- 
ness of a hair is the proper distance back. The cover 
acts as a breaker or bender of the shaving, giving the 
.bit a new start, instead of allowing it to follow the down- 
ward direction of the grain. 

In whittling the wood with a knife, the blade will 
follow the grain. If we could fasten on the knife blade 
a strip of steel, t',; in. back from the cutting edge (Fig. 



47), then push as before, the blade would sink into the 
wood only so far as the steel is back, the shaving 
hitting the steel, bending or breaking over, and giving 




Fig. 47 



the knife another start near the surface, instead of 
following the grain under the surface. The surface of 
the cross-grained and curly board is roughened and dug 
into the exact distance your cover is back from the end 
of the bit; push your cover closer, the rough places 
partly disappear; push cover down within a hair line of 
the end, and the rough holes entirely disappear. 

Setting Your Plane 

Hold the toe (the front) of your plane close to your 
eyes with the face uj). Sight along the face to see that 



CARPENTRY 



43 



the bit just shows througli tlie tliroat, and tli:it one edge 
of the bit is not higher than the other. 

To Plane a True Surface 

Experience has taught that tlie short, smooth jjlane 
can be used to better advantage on short work — the 
longer jack plane, by hanging over the ends of the wood, 
requires just so much more pressure to hold down. 
Plane with the grain and on top of it, not against it, or 
across it, taking a shaving the whole length of the 
board. Care must be taken not to plane more shavings 
off of one corner or edge, making that place low, as the 
board will then rock or wabble on its higher corners, 
making it in wind (j, as in f,nd). Plane as if you were 
attempting to make the board concave or hollow from 
end to end, which is done by pressing heavily on the 
toe or front of the plane as you start your shaving, and 
on the heel or back end as you near the forward end of 
your board, the front of the plane being raised in the air. 

Fig. 48 shows the planes in an exaggerated position. 



^ 



^ 



the arrows pointing in the direction of the pressure as 
applied by botli hands, demonstrating a good method. 

Press hard on the front of the plane, while pushing 
forward, and not down, with right hand. 



Equalize tiie pressure in the center. 
Press hartl on back end to complete a full length sha\-- 
ing, while throwing up the front of the plane. 

To Prove a True Surface 

Try the face of the board lengthwise and across with 
the edge of your plane, to see that it is straight either 
way. Tlie edge of your })lane makes a good straight- 
edge. 

Then try the face of the board on the true bench top, 
or other true surface, to see that it lies perfectly flat. If 
it rocks or wabbles it is in wind — two opposite corners 
are higher than the others. Two or three silky shavings 
off each high corner will generally true the surface. 

To prove the surface true, lay two sticks, called sight 
sticks, across either end of the board, and sight along 
their top edges. Two opposite edges of these sight 
sticks must be planed perfectly straight, and parallel to 
each other (Fig. 49). 




If sight sticks are not available, two large carpenter's 
squares may be laid across the board (Fig. 50). 



44 



CARPENTRY 




To Plane Edges Square with Marked Face 

Examine your plane to see that the bit is set perfectly 
true with the face — that neither edge is high. With your 
tr3^-square trj' the edge of your wood, from the marked 
face, noting which side of the edge is high. Move the 
whole plane over toward the high side, until the rounded 
center of the plane-bit is over the high edge. Notice 
that the plane, instead of being tipped toward the high 
edge to plane it off, as beginners usually proceed, is 
leaning with the slanting edge toward the low side. The 
plane-bit, being slightly rounded across the whole end, 
will cut at its center, while the edge, being up in the plane, 
cuts off nothing. A shaving is thus made, thick on one 
edge and of no thickness on the other. Three or four 
such shavings will bring down the high edge. 



Under no circumstances is the plane-bit ever to be 
thrown over to one side by the lever, to take down high 
edges. A plane, .set out of true, is worthless, and its 
use may cause hours of extra labor. 

To Plane Ends from Marked Face and Edge 
With your try-square try tiie end to find the high 
places. See that your plane is set perfectly true, and 




Fig. 51 

is very sharp. Pressing hard on the front of your plane, 
plane only jjart way across the end, stopping a half inch 
or more from the back edge (Fig. 51). Reverse your 




Fig. 52 



plane and plane back again, 
more from first edge (Fig. 52). 



stopping a half inch or 



CARPENTRY 



45 



Never, under any circumstances, chamfer or bevel 
off the back corner, to enable you to plane clear across 
the end. 




Fig. 53. A poor method 
Note. — ^This method is sometimes used for rough work. 

Learn to plane rightly for right's sake, and for future 
accurate fitting, and not for the convenience of the 
moment. Do not suppose that the cabinet woods, 
cherry, oak and sycamore, will be given j'ou in pieces 
large enough to enable you to chamfer off a corner, 
thereby wasting a long strip on edge or end. 

Marks and Chatters 

An experienced worker can tell the condition of your 
plane, and know how much skill you possess, by merely 
looking at your planed board. 

Small hollows, or cuts, across the grain, at the back 
end of your board, show a lack of pressure on the front 
end of your plane as you start — the back end having 
been pushed tlown sliglitly, the bit makes a short dig and 
then jumps out. 

The same marks at the front end show pressure at 



the toe or front of your plane, instead of a lifting in the 
air. These marks are called chatters. 

A small bead on the surface of your wood (Fig. 54, a) 
is caused by a nick in your plane-bit (Fig. 54, b). Shar- 



'1 ' J'l 




Fig. 54 



pen on your oil-stone until a good, heavy feather is 
formed, when the nick will disappear. 

A small groove or scratch in your wood may be caused 
by the soft iron of the face of your plane being raised by 
hitting your iron bench stop or a chisel. Feel for it, 
and having found the raised plane, oil-stone it off by 
gently rubbing with the oil-stone hekl in your hand. 

Remarks 

Thin, silky sliavings, and very few of them, show the 
careful, thoughtful, and good worktnan. 

The man who examines and tries his work, with his 
try-square and rule, continually, knows what he is 
doing. 

A great pile of short, thick shavings; a board in wind 
and full of chatters; a perspiring boy — all point to the 
careless, thoughtless worker. 

Listen to your instructor; follow his directions, and 
use your good, common sense. 



46 



CARPENTRY 





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CARPENTRY 



47 



Exercise. Book Rack (Fig. 55) 

Plane pieces to exact dimensions. 

Lay out Ijase of raclc witli knife and try-sciuare, knifing 
down botla edges J in- 

Gauge liglitly tlie deptli of groove on edge of Ijase 
witli sharp gauge, and knife tlie gauge line. 

Clamp the base board in vise, holding the thumb just 
to the knife-line to steady the saw (Fig. .50), and saw, 
with the back saw, a light kerf just inside both knife- 
lines. 




Fig. 56 



Chisel out groove smooth and true to the saw kerfs. 
With the inch chisel held perpendicularly exactly in 



knife-line, pound gently with mallet, to complete the 
full width of groove (Fig. .57). 




Fig. 57 

Carefully smooth the bottom of groove, and try with 
try-square to prove the surface. 

Lay out centers for screw holes on bottom face of 
base board. 

Insert end of rack in groove, clamp in vise with one 
screw hole center showing above vise (Fig. 58). Prove 




Fig. 58 



48 



CARPENTRY 



that the end of the rack is square with base with 
try-square, pounding the end over gently with mallet 
or hammer, if out of square. 

Bore a hole with -jV'"- ^'^^' (^'S- ^^^'' *^^® shank of the 
bit is marked with figure "7") through and through 
base board, and up into end \ in. or less, only. 



Bore with -aVi'i- gimlet bit on up into end, making 
full depth of hole about H hi. 

To screw one piece of wood against another, so as to 
make a perfect joint, the first piece must be bored 
through and through, with a bit slightly larger than the 
diameter of the shank of the screw, that the piece may 
be drawn up close by the flat head of the screw, as it 
is screwed in. 

The hole in the second piece should be slightly smaller 
than that part of the screw around which the thread 
circles. 

With rose countersink (Fig. 60), countersink to re- 



ceive screw head, and screw in \\ in. No. 11 fiat head 
wood screw. Reverse rack in vise, and screw in other 
screws. Clamp rack in vise and plane edges true. 



This can be done onlj' by having the plane rest on the 
end piece while planing the base, and on the base while 
planing the ends (Fig. 61). 




Fig. 61 

Practice in Gauging 

First, sharpen the gauge point with a fine file to a 
knife point; not a needle point (Fig. 62). 

Second, set the gauge with your rule — never trust the 
scale on the bar of the gauge, but measure with your 
rule the distance from the scratch point to the head or 
shoulder piece. 

Gauge from you (Fig. 63) always, allowing the point 
to drag, pressing the head of the gauge hand against the 
marked edge or face of your board, but bearing lightly 
with the scratch point on the board, to make the 
lightest line possible — the light line is the accurate 
line; the heavy gauge line has a dimension of its own, 
and planing the heavy line away will cause the wood 
to measure nearly irV in. under dimensions. 

In gauging wide boards, 5 ins. or 6 ins. wide, hold the 



CARPENTRY 



49 



gauge with the tliumb behind the bar of the gauge, 
instead of behind the head, so as to steady the moving 
point (Fig. 64). 

Never gauge across tlie grain of the wood. A scratch 




Fig. 63 




Fig. 64 

point does not make a smooth line across the grain, but 
merely tears the fibers. 

Use a sharp knife and your try-sciuare to mark across 
the grain. 



Rules for Planing to Dimensions 

True and smooth one side — and mark. 

Joint (straighten and square) one edge from marked 
side — and mark. 

Square one end — from marked side and edge — anil 
mark. 

Gauge to required thickness from marked side, plane 
to gauged line and smooth. 

Gauge to required width from marked edge, and joint 
to gauged line. 

Lay off with knife and square the required length from 
marked end, saw to knife-line, and square with marked 
side and edge. 

Box Made of White Wood (Fig. 65) 

Your instructor is to examine each end, each side, the 
top, the bottom, and try each with the try-square, 
measure each dimension on every piece, and sign his 
name to every one of the eight pieces; that he may 
detect and show you how to correct any dimension or 
any surface out of true, or edge out of square, and 
direct you to make over such pieces, and make them over 
again and again, until they are perfect — because one bad 
piece spoils the whole box. 

Before nailing together, would it not be a good plan 
to take a thin, silky shaving off all the surfaces that are 
to be inside your box, making them clean and white? 

Should nails be driven straight into the wood? Why? 

The ends of the box are first nailed to the ends of the 
bottom; then the sides are nailed to both the bottom 



50 



CARPENTRY 



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CARPENTRY 



51 



and the ends. Does this make a stronger box, than to 
nail the bottom to the lower edges of the sides and 
ends? Why? 

The top is stiffened by two cleats, screwed on — not 
glued. Why? 

Of what other use are the cleats? 

Any one can nail together the pieces to form a box, 
and then plane it smooth and square, making quite a 
respectable box to look at, but your instructor is to 
mark your box immediately after it is nailed together, 
and before it is planed. Why? 

No sandpaper is to be used on any of these exercises — 
the box, chiseling exercise, or joints — because sand- 
paper, though it smooths surfaces nicely, rounds over 
corners, spoils narrow edges and takes away the char- 
acter of your work. 

It is this character your instructor hopes to see shown: 
a smooth, shiny surface, made with a perfectly sharp 
plane-bit, set true in your plane — square edges — smooth, 
polished ends — cornel's sharp enough to cut your hands 
— nails set below the surface neatly — no hammer marks 
— screws countersunk flush with the surface without 
marring surface — and, lastly, the whole box clean and 
white. 

To plane edges of two or more pieces when nailed or 
glued together. 

Having nailed the ends of your box to the bottom, the 
edges must be planed slightly to receive the sides. 
Clamp the partly nailed box in vise as shown. Remem- 
bering that the throat of the plane does not extend clear 



across the plane, and that the bit is slightly rounded 
across the whole end, we cannot hold the plane as shown 
in Fig. 66 and take even a single shaving off, without 




Fig. 66 



Fig 67 



planing the end of the box end out of true, as the edge 

of the bit cuts nothing while the center is cutting off a 

whole shaving. Our box 

end would be slanted off 

as shown in Fig. 67. 

The only way to plane 

edges of this kind (your 

glove-box later on) is to 

lay the back of the plane 

on one piece — the end of 

the box — and plane the 

Fig. 68 other piece — the bottom — 

then lay the plane on the 

finished edge and plane the first piece. In this way 

only can you plane a square edge (Fig. 6S). 




52 



CARPENTRY 



Nails 
Wire brads and nails are made by machines, wliich cut 
off tlie wire from a large reel, point it, and upset the end, 
making the head on the piece. Some manufacturers 
barb their nails, by making several sharp cuts on op- 
posite sides of the nail near the head, throwing up the 



o 



V 

Fig. 09 



Fig. 70 



surface as in Fig. (iO. This nail drives easily, and will 
not pull out. 

Wire brads with small heads and wire nails with large 
heads have taken the place of iron or steel cut nails for 
good reasons. Wire nails hold iimch better than iron 
cut nails, being thinner, and having a sharp point, and 



are of the same diameter the whole length, while a cut 
iron or steel nail is wedge-shaped (Fig. 70), and will 
therefore work back and out, and is blunt on the end. 

The thin, sharp wire nail enters the wood with its 
sharp point merely separating and pushing back the 
fibers of the wood, which try to spring together again, 
thereby holding the nail more tightly, while the iron cut 
nail digs a hole out ahead of it with its blunt end, sever- 
ing the fibers entirely, and being wedge-shaped soon 
works out. 

Wire nails are bought and sold by weight, and as to 
size by length in inches, and size of wire according to 
the standard wire gauge. A 2-in. No. 10 or 12 wire 
nail is 2 ins. long and about t^V ins. thick, while a 
|-in. No. 22 is f in. long and hardly larger than a 
strong pin. 

Screws 

Wood screws (Fig. 71) are made entirely by machinery 
and have either round or fiat heads. Some are made to 
screw in slowly and have a slowly advancing thread; 
this kind holds two pieces of wood together very firmly, 
but takes time to screw in. Never drive these screws; 
instead, a hole should be bored the size of the shank of 
the screw, and through the first piece of wood only. 
In the other piece of wood a much smaller hole is boretl 
for the threaded part of the screw — in very hard wootl 
the size of the diameter at the base of the threads — Ijut 
ill soft wood, much less. 

Screws are also made to be driven, as a nail, and have 
but a few turns of the thread (Fig. 72). This kind is 



CARPENTRY 



53 



used only in packing cases, antl while it can he (lri\eu 
quickly, it holds but little. 

Screws are bought and sold by the gross, in packages, 
and as to size by length in inches and size of wire. A 
2-in. screw, No. 11, is 2 ins. long and about i,; in. in 



S^ 



Fig. 71 Fia. 72 

diameter, while a screw f in. long, No. 3, is f in. long 
and only about ^\ in. in diameter. 

Notice the difference in the gauge of wire, for brads 
and screws. 

Wire No. 22 for nails would be only as thick as a strong 
pin, while No. 22 wire for screws would be as thick as 
your small finger. Wire for a No. 3 nail would be over 



\ in. thick, wliile wue lor a No. 3 screw would be only 
about 3^^ in. thick. 

Screw Eyes 

To find the position of the screw eyes. for the hooks, 
in the ends of your box, set your dividers to measure the 
exact distance between the center of the hole for the 
screw and the center of the hook (Fig. 73). Let fall a 




perpendicular line from the center of the end of the cover 
of your box, and on this line lay off the distance found, 
from the same center. A small hole should be bored for 
the eye with a brad-awl, the brad-awl being used later 
to screw in the eye (Fig. 74). 



Fig. 74 



Chiseling Exercise Made of White Wood (Fig. 75) 
The lumber supplied by your instructor is large enough 
to allow only for careful truing up. 



54 



CARPENTRY 




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Fig. 75 



Follow the rule for planing to dimensions. 
The ends, being only 2 ins. wide, will be hard to plane 
square. Reverse your plane and plane from both edges. 




Fig. 76 

Narrow ends may also be planed in the bench hook or 
chiseling board, by arranging it as shown in Fig. 76 — the 



narrow strip, A,beingnecessary,as the end of your bench- 
hook, B, is soon sawed out of true. 

Mark out the square grooves and mortises and the 
square shoulder next to the pyramids with knife and 
try-square and a sharp gauge, marking out the mortises 
on both sides of your exercise. 

To mark out the base lines of the pyramids, or the 
apexes with knife or gauge, would mar the pj'ramid, as 
the wood is to be cut away on a slant, and not straight 
in as a knife cut or gauge line is made. Chamfers or 
bevels will always have to be marked out with a lead 
pencil, sharpened to a chisel point (Fig. 77). 

Show to your instructor. 

Notice that the pyramids are to be made first as roofs 
— across the wood. Why? 

Lay your wood in bench hook and saw to knife lines 



CARPENTRY 



55 




77. — a, lead pencil lines; h, 1-cnife line; c, knife lines; 
gauge and knife; c, knife line 



in square grooves and the square shoulder next to 
pyramids; also saw a kerf part way down between the 
pyramids, that the chiseled shavings may break off (Fig. 
78). 

Turn on edge and pare down to the bottom of the i 
square grooves (Fig. 79). Do not touch shoulders. 

Notice the clean knife line around the edges of j 
groove. 

Clamp in vise or tail screw, and with mallet and chi.sel 
cut out the three double pyramids across the wood, 
chiseling always down the siiles of the pyramids, and 
not acro.ss horizontally, or lengthwise with the grain. 
Notice the clean knife line around the edges of the square 
shoulders (Fig. SO). 




Fig. 78 




Fig. 79 

Mark the pyramids on the slanting sides (Fig. 81), 
saw a kerf down the center and chisel down as before — 
and not with the grain. 



56 



CARPENTRY 




Fig. so 




To Chisel Shoulders 
Take any practice piece, mark across the face and 
clown both edges with knife and try-square. With the 
chisel held ])orpendicularly, always, give a side move- 
ment to the downward cut, making a shearing cut, 
taking care not to mar the smooth knife lines (Fig. 82). 




Fig. 82 

Your instructor must see knife lines around edges of 
all shoulders. 

;\lark the mortises with both knife and gauge on top 
and bottom sides of the exercise, then chi.sel a full J in. 




Fig. S3 

away from both ends, chiseling from both sides of the 
wood, truing up the | in. ends after the mortises are cut 
through and tlu'ough (Fig. 83). 

Your instructor must see knife lines on ends and edges 
of your mortises. 



CARPENTRY 



57 



Joints 

The simplest and most widely used of all joints, for 
heavy timbers as well as lighter work, is the half-lap 
joint — either a corner half -lap (Fig. 84), or a lap within 
the length (Fig. 85). 

It is used in house framing, in lai:)ping over length- 




wise in ship building, making a simple scarf joint (Fi, 
86), and in the crossing of heavy timbers (Fig. 87). 




Fig. 86 Fig. 87 

Middle Half-lap Joint 

Make a middle half-lap joint of the dimensions given 
(Fig. 88). The wood will be of sufficient length to make 



the two parts of the joint, and should be planed in one 
piece, to the exact width and to a full thickness (^V i'l- 
over), to allow for planing up both faces, after the com- 
pleted joint has been shown to your instructor. 

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Fig. 88 
Parts of the joint that do not fit cannot be forced to 
fit in any way known, without marring the parts, so 



58 



CARPENTRY 



no hammering together of the fitted parts, or screwing 
in the vise or hand screws will be permitted. 

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Middle Half-lap Dovetail Joint 

The same kind of construction — ]ialf-la])i)ing — but a 



stronger and safer joint, with one of the timbers dove- 
tailed (Fig. 89). Plane your stock in one piece to exact 
width and full thickness (-^ in. over). Make the tail 
first and mark off mortise from the tail. Will it be 
good practice to make the tail, as in Fig. 90, then turn 
it on edge and pare half away and break out the lower 
sharp corner, as in Fig. 91? 




Fig. 91 



Or cut it half away first (Fig. 92), then mark out the 
tail with knife, saw the shoulders, and chisel on chiseling 
board (Fig. 93). 




CARPENTRY 



59 



Mortise and Tenon Joint 
The next most widely used joint is a mortise and 
tenon joint, made up of a mortise or hole (Fig. 94) and 
a tenon or tongue to fit the hole (Fig. 95). 




FiQ. 95 

The tenon or tongue often slides in at the corner, 
making a slip mortise and tenon joint — called also a 
tongue and groove (Fig. 96). 





Or, the tenon often extends through and beyond the 
mortise, and is keyed on the outside (Fig. 97). 

Again, the tenon is half dovetailed in and keyed (Fig. 
98). 

Or, the tenon is split with the saw, and glued wedges 
driven in, after the mortise has been lengthened on the 
lower side. Door and window frames for houses are 
made in this way (Fig. 99). 



Note. — Joints are not to be glued. 



Fig. 96 



Fig. 97 




60 



CARPENTRY 



Through Mortise and Tenon Joint 

Tiie tenon exteml.s through and beyond the mortise 
J in. Gauge and knife all lines (Fig. 100). The tenon 
must not bind or rub the sides of the mortise on coming 




u-y^l_^._^l_^..^.^ 




Fio. 100 



through, or the end of the tenon will show the bruised 
and marred surface. Neitlier must the tenon walible 
sidewise or lengthwise in the mortise. 

Pare down the sides of the tenon, with the wood held 
on edge on bench hook (Fig. 101). 

Lay out mortise with knife and gauge on both edges 
of wood, chiseling from both edges, and ^ in. from both 
ends of mortise, to allow for prying out shavings and 
truing up ends. In paring down the sides of the tenon 
or mortise, the wood may be held in the vise, and both 




hands used to hold the chisel, provided all chiseling 
is done across the grain — never with the grain, for fear 
of chiseling under the marked surface (Fig. 102). 

To Cut Tenons in Hard Wood 

It is impossible to pare down the sides of the tenon as 
in the softer pine or poplar, so these tenons must be 

Note. — Joints are not to be glued. 



CARPENTRY 



61 



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62 



CARPENTRY 



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63 



sawed carefully to gauge and knife lines (Fig. 10.')), 
with a sharp tenon saw, or back saw. 

Clamp wood in vise at such an angle as to be able to 
see gauge lines on end and edge of piece, and saw to 
both lines (Fig. 106). 

Swing wood over in vise until other edge of piece can 




Fig. 106 



be seen, and saw to gauge lines, using kerf already 
made in end as a guide (Fig. 107). Finish by clamping 
wood straight up and down in vise, and saw to bottom 
of tenon. 



Table Leg Joints, Showing Top Screwed On 

One rail doweled in. 

Other rail morti.sed and tenoned. 

Rails bored for screws (Fig. 108). 

To mark out for dowels, drive three small brads in 
centers on end of rail, cut off brads to project ts in. 
only, and push rail against table leg in proper place. 

This method is best where legs or rails are sawed at 
an angle or are curved, as in chairs. 

Two short mortises are made in leg to receive the ten- 
ons, instead of one long mortise, that the connecting 
J in. of wood between mortises may prevent the leg 
from splitting or bending out, when tenons are driven in. 

Table tops are screw^ed on, not glued. A large slant- 
ing hole is bored in the rail, as at A (Fig. 109), leaving 
a shoulder for head of screw. 

To Set Bevel to 45° 

Plane the edge of any board straight and true. With 
try-square and knife, draw a line A at right angles to edge. 
With rule, mark off on line A and on edge of board, 
equal distances from right angle, 2 ins. — 2 ins. or 3 ins. — 
3 ins., making two adjacent sides of a square. With handle 
of bevel held firmly against edge of board, as shown in 
Fig. 110, move the blade of bevel until it just touches 
points marked off on line A and edge of board, equally 
distant from right angle. Screw up set screw of bevel 
gently, and blade will mark on one side of handle 45°, 
and on other side 135°. 



64 



CARPENTRY 



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CARPENTRY 



65 



The blade, made to reach from one comer of an imagi- 
nary square to the opposite corner with the handle of 
the bevel parallel to one side, cuts these two corners, 
or right angles, measured by 90°, into halves, measured 
by 45°. 

A simpler method is to use the large carpenter's 
square as the adjacent sides of an imaginary square, 
and with the handle of the bevel held firmly against one 
side of the square, move the blatle mitil it just touches 





points equally distant from corner of square: 2 ins. — 
2 ins.; 3 in,s.— 3 ins. (Fig. 111). 

To Set Bevel to 30° and 60° 

In any right-angled triangle, if the hypotenuse is 
twice the length of the short side, the angles adjacent to 
the hypotenuse will be measured by arcs of 30° and 60° 
(Fig. 112). 



CARPENTRY 



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T^ 



^ 



1* 



^r. 



i A — : 



--a-- 



._..„-/.L^ ^ 



Fig. 113 



■BU^ i- 



Mark off on the blade of the bevel any distance, say 
5 ins. Mark off on one side of large carpenter's square 
2\ ins. — just one-half the distance marked off on the 
blade, which distance is to be the length of the hypote- 
nuse of the right-angled triangle. 

Hold the handle of tlie bevel firmly against one side 
of the large square, with the blade just touching the 
point marking 2\ ins. from the corner right angle. 

Swing the blade until the point marking the distance 
5 ins. just touches the other side of the large square. 

The hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle is then 
just twice the short side, making the angles 30° and 60° 
wide. 

Hat Rack Strip with Chamfered Edges (Fig. 113) 
Chamfers mav be rounded, or hollow, or a slant of 



45°, or any other bevel, and are used to finish off sharp 
corners (Fig. 114) 






'-^//A 



Construction. Plane the strip to exact dimensions, 
square and true. 

With rule and sharp lead pencil, find the position of 
mortises, also the length of chamfers along edges. 

With knife and gauge and try-square, lay out mortises 
on face of strip, turn over and lay out mortises on other 
side with same set of gauge (Fig. 115). 

When chiseling the mortises, cut a full J in. away from 



CARPENTRY 



67 



both ends of the mortise, chiseling from both sides of 
the wood, truing up the ^ in. ends after tlie mortises are 
cut through and tlirough. This method prevents mar- 
ring tlae eiads of the mortises, and tlie perfect fit of tire 
tenons on hat pins (Fig. 116). 

Chamfers cannot be gauged, for fear of marring the 
surfaces, a-a (Fig. 117), showing the scratches made by 
the gauge, wliicli are not removed by the chamfer. 

With rule and very sharp lead pencil, measure off 
tV in., the width of the chamfer, on face find edges, 
making several short dashes at each measurement. 
With a straight-edge make a light line connecting the 
dashes. Or with the pencil held in the fingers, make a 
finger gauge, and connect the dashes (Fig. 118). 




wood, making a smooth, shearing cut. Always plane on 
top of the ends of the fibers — toward the ends, not up 
against them. 



The end chamfers may be planed off, moving the plane 
across the end of the strip, in the direction of the arrow 
(Fig. 119), holding it to cut at 45° with the grain of the 



•^ 




Fig. 116 



CU 



CL '■ 




Fig. 117 Fig. 118 

The edge chamfers are to be chiseled, holding the 
chisel at an angle, to make a shearing cut, the straight 
back of the chisel helping to follow the line, and make a 



G8 



CARPENTRY 



true surface. The grain of wood is too crooked and unre- 
liable to cut altogether with the grain. The chisel, held 
as shown (Fig. 120), cuts partly across and partly with 




the grain, the flat back helping to guide the cutting edge. 
It is better practice to cut the ends of the chamfers 




Fig. 120 



down straight, at first, finishing the chamfer true and 
smooth, then cut down the slanting ends (Fig. 121). 




Shaping the Hat Pins (Fig. ii6) 

Plane the wood for the hat pins in one piece — 9 ins. long, 

1 in. wide, and f in. thick. Saw into two pieces of equal 

length, and lay out the tenons xV "i- longer than f in., 

with knife and try-square and gauge, gauging around 




the end of the piece (Fig. 122) for the tenon, and knifing 
the shoulder with knife and try-square. Knife the gauge 



CARPENTRY 



69 



lilies also, saw the shoulders close to the knife line, hold 
the piece on edge on bench hook, and pare down the 
tenon as shown in Fig. 123. 

Notice the knife line around the shoulder. 




In laying out the curved end of the pin, care must be 
taken not to mar the edge of the piece with the point 
of the dividers, as no work showing a center hole will be 
accepted by your instructor. Split from a practice 
piece a thin chip, on which to rest the point of the 
dividers. As the wood is f in. thick and the dividers are 
set to § in., the position of the chip, on which rests one leg 
of the dividers, is easily found (Fig. 124). Draw with 
lead pencil a light line \ in. from top face of pin, and con- 



tinue the circumference of the end circle or curve until 
it intersects this line. From the point of intersection 
draw a line A to the end of the f in. plane or flat place on 
the top face of the pin. Knife the line A. Saw down 
at B, I in. or j^ in. only, that the chips may break 
away when chiseling (Fig. 124). 

With the chisel held perpendicularly, pare down the 




upper face of the pin, beginning to chisel at C (Fig. 125), 
that the chips may break away with the grain. For 
the same reason begin to chisel at D and at E. Chisel 
from both sides of the pin toward the center, paring 



70 



CARPENTRY 



around the circular end, leaving short, straight cuts, as 1 mallet, also place a piece of newspaper on the bench to 
shown, which must be carefully smoothed out by paring | receive the drops of glue. The bench top must be kept 
over and over, until a smooth curve is secured (Fig. 126). clean. 



No sandpaper or file is to be used until your instructor 




Fig. 126 

measures and tries each piece. The pin may then be 
beveled off on each side from the J in. plane or fiat 
place, reducing the width of the curved end to h in. 
(Fig. 127). 

The pins are to be glued in. Make a small i)addle 
with which to glue the sides of the mortises — do not 




Fig. 127 

glue the tenon — glue the shoulder of the tenon only, 
and drive the pin down, i)lacing a small block on the 
end of the pin to receive the blows of the hammer or 



With a sharp chisel, cut away any glue around the 
pin, and plane off the extra jjj in. of tenon on the back 
of the strip. 

Sandpaper carefully with No. ^ sandpaper, held in 
the fingers on a small block of wood, sandpapering with 
the grain of the wood always. 

Fill with white filler and wax. Screw into top edge 
two screw eyes, boring first with brad-awl. 

Suggestions for Your Conduct in the Shop 

Your ]ilace is at your own bench always. 

Should you leave your bench to show your work to 
your instructor, or to go to the machines, be careful, in 
passing, not to interfere with other men. Beg his 
pardon, or excuse yourself, if you sliould do so. 

Your bench is made to work at — not to sit on or 
lounge on. Stand at your bench. 

Should your work be interfered with by the stopping 
of the motor, or the absence of your instructor, or for 
any other reason, stand at your bench; remember your 
place is at your bench. 

Permission must be asked, at all times, to leave the 
shop. 

Quiet talking is permitted only as long as it does not 
interfere with your work. A busy, thoughtful workman 
has no time to talk, excepting a ])leasant nod, or 
"good-morning" to his class-mates. 



CARPENTRY 



71 



Show your good breeding by your quiet, gentlemanly 
conduct at all times, even when " things go wrong," 
and a hard piece of work has to be done over. Con- 
quering your impatience and your bad temper is bet- 
ter work than making a perfect exercise. 

Congregating at the grindstones or the band saw will 
not be permitted. If you must wait your turn, wait at 
your bench, then move up not closer than six feet from 
grindstone or band saw. Crowding a man at the ma- 
chines, or distracting his attention, or interfering with 
him in any way, is dangerous, and will not be allowed. 

Good spirits — better work. Be pleasant and keep so, 
not only for the help it gives you in accomplishing your 
work, but for the sake of your class-mates and your 
instructors. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 
Sawing 

1. Give the correct name of every tool in bench and 

drawer. 

2. What is meant by the pitch of a saw tooth? 

3. How much pitch has the tooth of a cross-cut saw 

for general work? 

4. Prove, by a sketch, that a saw tooth with pitch 

will cross-cut more easily than one without. 

5. What is meant by setting saws? Are saws gener- 

ally set? Why? 

6. What is a saw kerf? Jlust it be considered? 

7. Why file a cross-cut saw from the handle to the 

point? 



8. Are all the teeth filed from one side? Why? 

9. How many points to the inch should a cross-cut 

saw have? A saw for general use? 

10. Has the rip saw tooth any pitch? Why not? 

11. Why has a rip saw larger teeth than a cross-cut? 

12. How is a rip saw filed, and like what other tool 

does each tooth become? 

13. At what angle should the rip saw be held to cut 

best? 

14. How many points to the inch should a rip saw 

have, to rip well in medium and hard wood? 
1.5. What kind of saw is the back saw, generally? 
Why is it called a back saw, and for what special 
work is it used? 

16. How many points to the inch should it have? 

17. How is the size of saw teeth indicated on your saws? 

18. What kind of teeth on a band saw? A scroll saw? 

19. Why should a knife be used always to lay out work? 

20. Should heavy gauge lines ever be used to lay out 

work? 

21. Is gauging across the grain good practice? 

22. Should chamfers or bevels be gauged? 

23. Give two reasons for using a mallet on chisels. 

24. How do you set a tee-bevel to an angle of 45°? 

To 60°? 

25. How do you lay out a hexagon and an octagon on 

a square top of given dimensions? 

26. What is meant by the swing of a bit-brace? 

27. How is the size of the auger-bits shown? 



72 



CARPENTRY 



Grinding 

28. Grindstones run at 500 ft. circumference per min- 

ute. At how many revolutions pev minute would 
you run a 42-in. stone? 

29. How does a grindstone get dull? 

30. Why use water on a grindstone? 

31. Will the grindstone cut faster when running toward 

you or away from you? Why? 

32. Which is the safer side at which to grind? 

Sharpening 

33. Why use oil on an oil-stone? 

34. Does your oil-stone get dull? 

35. Describe the best way to hold your plane-bit or 

chisel on the stone. Will one hand hold the tool 
properly? 

36. Should you hold the tool so high as to make a 

second bevel? Why? 

37. How long should you rub the tool on the oil-stone? 

38. What is a feather etlge? 

39. Describe carefully how the feather edge is removed. 

40. Will whetting the bit or chisel on a block of wood 

to remove the feather, make a sharp tool? Why? 

PLANES 

41. How do you set your plane? 

42. Should the ])la.ne-hit be ])erfectly straight across? 

Why ii.it? 

43. What is the use oF I he co\cr nr lireaker? Illus- 

trate by sketch. 



44. 



45. 



48. 



49. 



50. 



51. 



How far back from the end of the bit should the 
cover or breaker be screwed for cross-grained 
or knotty wood? 

Can you name planes which have no covers or 
breakers? Do they cut as smoothly? 

To Plane a True Face 

Explain how to plane a true surface. 

Show by a .sketch the position of the plane and the 

pressure applied as you begin your shaving and 

end it. 
When is a board in wind? Name two ways of 

trying it to get it out of wind. 

To Plane Edges Square with Marked Face 

Explain, and show with sketch, how the slightly 
rounded end of the plane-bit will take off the 
higher side of the edge, by merely moving over 
the whole plane to the higher side. 

Should the bit ever be pushed over, out of true, by 
the lever, to plane edges? Why? 

To Plane Ends 

Explain, carefully, the proper way to plane ends. 

Marks and Chatters on Surfaces 

What arc chatters, and how causeil? 

What is the matter with the plane-bit when it 

leaves a little round bead on the surface of the 

wowl? 



CARPENTRY 



73 



54. What causes small hollows or scratches to be left 

in the board? 

55. Does a great pile of shavings always show a fast, 

good workman? 

56. Give the rule for planing to dimensions. 

57. AVhy begin on the larger surface first? 

Nails 

58. How are wire nails made? 

59. Explain fully why they hold so much better than 

cut nails. 

60. How are they sold? How is size shown? 

61. What is a cut nail? What sensible objection is 

made to the blunt end and the wedge-shaped 
side? 

62. How ai'e cut nails sold, and how is size shown? 

How did this originate? Size of tacks? 

Wood Screws 

63. How is the size of screws shown? How are they 

packed? 

64. State carefully the difference in gauge of wire for 

screws and wire nails. 



65. What is a shearing cut? 

66. Why is such a cut so much smoother than a straight 

downward cut? 

Joints 

67. What is the simplest and most widely used joint 

in all construction? 

68. iMake a sketch of each of four ways of using this 

joint. 

69. Make a sketch of this same joint, but stronger and 

safer. 

70. What is a mortise-and-tenon joint ? 

71. ;\Iake a sketch of a slip-mortise-and-tenon joint — 

also called a tongue and groove, a keyed mortise 
and tenon, a wedged mortise and tenon. 

72. To what very common use is the wedged mortise- 

and-tenon put? 

73. ilake a sketch of a half-lap miter joint. 

State where this joint could be used to advantage. 

74. Sketch a corner dovetail. 

75. Sketch a drawer dovetail. 

Explain why this joint has been used for so many 
years on drawer fronts. 

76. Describe a blind mitered, dovetailed joint. 



WOOD TURNING 



The Lathe 

Figure 128 shows a lU-iii. speed lathe with its counter- 
shaft. The 10-iii. measures the diameter of the largest 
pulley or piece of wood that can be turned. This meas- 
urement is taken from the center of the spindle to the 
bed, 5 ins. 

The bed is i)laned true on the upper surface, and has 
two ways or shears, on which the rest and tail stock 
slide. 

The head stock supports the split boxes, in which runs 
the live spindle with the cone pulley fastened to it. 
This spindle is threaded at the right end to receive the 
face plate, and has a hole bored entirely through it 
from end to end, to admit of inserting a rod to knock 
out the tapering live center or spur center, so called 
because it turris the wood by having its spurs driven 
into one end of the wood (Fig. 129). 

The split boxes are adjusted by means oi caps, mto 
which are screwed the oil cups.. 

A set screw with a set nut to clamp it, is provided at 
the left end box, which takes up any lateral motion 
caused by wear of the spindle. 

The tail stock supports the dead spindle which has 
a tapering hole to receive the dead center. There are 
two kinds of dead centers — the point center (Fig. 130), 



which is unsafe for wood turning, as the friction be- 
tween the wootl and the point is so great, even when 
the wood is oiled, as to burn and char the wood, allowing 
it to fly from the lathe; and the cup center (Fig. 131), 
which has a true, flat bottom or back, inside of a rim 
yV in. or J in. high, and J in. or more in diameter, thereby 
holding a whole half inch of the wood, instead of just a 
point, and without the pushing friction of the point 
center. The dead or tail spindle does not revolve, but 
slides in and out on the tail stock and a grooved way, 
by means of a screw, with a hand wheel or handle at the 
right end. The tail spindle is provided with a clamp 
lever, which must be carefully screwed up to clamp the 
spindle when the wood is revolving. 

The slide rest consists of a lower slide running on the 
ways or shears, and an upper slide containing the post, 
to support the tee-rest, which is adjusted by a set screw. 
The upper slide is also provided with a tee way or groove 
to admit the head of a long bolt, running down through 
the lower slide and also through the bed of the lathe, and 
clamped on the under side, thereby holding both parts 
of the rest to the bed in any position required. 
Countershaft 

The countershaft receives the power from the line 
shaft, and delivers it to the lathe. This countershaft 



WOOD TURNING 



75 



is most necessary, enabling you to stop your machine, 
while the next lathe or all other lathes continue to run. 



5A .'//;»;<•.« 




>W»_J^ 


>l: 


■5V _Lh 




y^ 


H* 


i^.w.. 


' '♦■'r's 



Fig. 128 



This is done by making one of the two similar pulleys 
on your countershaft a loose pulley; that is, a pulley 




that merely runs on your shaft without turning it, and 
by throwing your belt on this pulley by means of the 
shifting lever, the power is taken away from your 
machine, allowing it to stop immediately. 

The countershaft runs in boxes, held in place by means 
of two or more hangers (Fig. 132). Fastened to the 
countershaft is the driving or tight pulley, the same 
size as the loose pulley, and tfie cone pulley, with its 
largest end over the smallest end of the head-stock 
cone, thereby giving you greater speed at j'our lathe. 
The largest diameter of the counter cone is about 12 ins., 
and the countershaft runs 500 revolutions a minute. 
The smallest diameter of j'our head-stock cone on lathe 



Tool Case 



14 



Fig. 130 



is about 2 ins. How fast will your lathe run if the belt 
is on the largest and smallest steps of these cones? 



JC, 



WOOD TURNING 



Each lianger of the countershaft has a projecting arm, 
to support the shifting rod, which is moved in either 
direction l)y means of a shifting lever, which is con- 
venient to and is in()\fd bv vour hand. To shift the 




belt, there are fastened to the shifting rod two shifting 
forks, coming down on either side of the belt, also two 
stop collars, to limit the motion of the rod when moved 
by the shifting lever. 

Oiling the Loose Pulley 

The loose pulley, running on your countershaft, must 
be oiled frequently, or it will stick tight, and turn your 
lathe. A hole is bored in the hub of the wheel for this 
purpose (Fig. 133), and also in the rim of the pulley, 
down through which you may ])ush the spout of your 
oil-can. .-\notliPr method of oiling the loo.se ]iulley is to 



drill a hole into one end of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 
134, into which a grease cup is screwed. This grease 
cup has a cover or cap made to screw down, and by turn- 
ing the cover a piston, fastened to the cover, pushes 
the grease forward into the hole. Another and better 
method is to have the hub of the pulley made large 
enough to contain a bushing or collar (Fig. 135), on 
which the pulley runs, and also a chamber for grease. 
The chamber is filled with grease, the bushing is forced 
into the hub of the pulley, and by means of holes in 
the bushing, the grease reaches and oils the shaft. Such 
pulleys need grease only once or twice a year. 

Loose pulleys are frequentl.y made much smaller than 
the tight pulley, with a slanting edge or way (Fig. 136), 
up which the belt will run when the shifting lever is 
moved. The loose pulley may tie made H ins. or 2 ins. less 



Cc^ar 




in diameter, thereby loosening the belt nearly four inches 
in a 10-in. and 12-in. L and T pulley , thus taking t he strain 
of a heavy, tight belt off the loose pulley, reducing the 
friction, and the necessity for frequent oiling. The 



WOOD TURNING 



77 



Wetherby, Rugg, and Richardson lathes have no loose 
pulleys. The countershafts of these lathes are made of 
two short shafts, each piece revolving in two boxes. 
On one piece is fastened the cone pullej' and driving 
pulley corresponding to the tight pulley on the other 
lathe counters; on the other piece is fastened a single 
pulley, the loose pulley of the other counters. The 
belt being thrown on this pulley, ceases to drive the 
lathe, as it is on a separate shaft from that on which 
the cone and driving pulley are fastened. 

All these devices have been explained to show the 
thought that has been given to the loose pulley by 
manufacturers. Loose pulleys are always causing 
trouble, anil must be cared for, and oiled, and watched 
constantly. 

Why could not a small oil cup, carefully filled, be 
screwed into the oil hole of the hub of a loose pulley, 
and give good service? Explain to your instructor. 

Care of the Lathe 

Oil yoiu- lathe before starting, every day. 

The lathe is to be brushed off and cleaned thoroughly, 
at the end of each shop period; the "general" tools 
are to be carefully returned to their places in the tool 
drawer of the case, and your own "individual" tools 
locked in your drawer. 

Your instructor will take apart the head stock of a 
lathe, showing you how to remove the caps, the boxes, 
the spindle; and how to clean the boxes and spindle 
with waste and oil. Li no case is your lathe to be 



taken apart without the permission of your instructor, 
and in no case is the lathe to be started up after taking 
apart and cleaning without first having been examined 
by your instructor, to see that the caps are screwed 
down jast far enough to permit the spindle to run easily 
and freely, and still not rattle in the boxes. A hammer 
or monkey wrench, or any piece of iron, is never to be 




used to pound apart the boxes, or a screw-dri\-er to pry 
them apart, or to pound or pry any part of a machine. 
Use instead a piece of wood. 

The set screw at the left end of your lathe (Fig. 137) 
is to be unscrewed with your hand only (do not use a 
monkey wrench), and fastened with the set nut, leaving 
the spindle ciuite free to run as long as the wood is held 
between both live and tlead centers. When doing 
face-plate work the set screw, pushing the thin washer 



78 



WOOD TURNING 



at the right end, is gently screwed against the end of 
the spindle, antl fastened with the set nut. If the box 
gets hot from the friction, or if the lathe does not run 
full speed because of the friction, loosen both set nut 
and set screw a quarter turn. 

Your instructor must be asked to examine your lathe 
if it does not run easily, or if the boxes get hot. 

Speed of the Lathe 

The lathe spindle has a speed of 3,000 revolutions, 
when the belt is on the smallest step of the lathe cone. 
This speed is adapted for work up to 2 j ins. or 3 ins. in 
diameter, the second or third speed for work up to 5 ins. or 
G ins. in diameter, and the slowest speed for pieces above 
6 ins. No particular speeds can be given for lathes, because 
of the nature of wood, higher speeds being required for 
soft wood than for hard. For instance, a 3-in. diameter 
cylinder of pine could be turned at a speed of 2,800 or 
3,000 revolutions per minute, and make smooth, fine 
work, without injuring the tool; but a cylinder of equal 
size, of white maple or oak, turned at .such a speed, 
would burn the wood and draw the temper of the turning 
chisels. In turning cylinders from rough stock that 
cannot be centered truly, or face-plate work, such as 
patterns glued up of many pieces and therefore not 
balanced, it is safer to run the lathe at a slow speed, 
until the work is centered or runs true — then increase 
the speed. The centrifugal force on a piece of work 
re\'olving rapidly is very great, and if the work is but 
a very little unbalanced, it will be thrown from the 



lathe, or the lathe itself will be made to vibrate or shake 
so much as to make any attempt to work on it useless. 

Belts 

The best belt is cut from the back of the hide, and is 
in short lengths; hence the name, short-lap belts. 
These pieces are fastened together in different ways. 
After first beveling off the ends of the belts, that the two 
ends may lap over without increasing the thickness, 
the parts are sometimes riveted together. A better 
method is to glue the beveled ends together, with glue 
or cement prepared for the purpose. 

Your lathe belts will become slack, through the stretch- 
ing of the leather, and you yourself, with the aid of your 
instructor, and with his permission at all times, must 
cut and take up the belt. 

Gluing requires too much time, excepting on large 
belts, running heavy machines, and riveting is not good 
practice, so your belt will be laced with either raw-hide 
belt lacing, or with wire lacing, or the two ends will be 
held together with belt hooks. 

To use the wire lacing, cut your belt square across, 
after marking with knife and try-square, cutting out 
the amount your instructor thinks necessary, then follow 
the directions which accompany the wire lacing outfit, 
taking care not to cross the lace wire on the inside of 
the belt, as the pounding of the belt against the pulley 
will very soon cut the crossed wires in two. The same 
rule, for the same reason, holds good in the use of raw- 
hide belt lacing — never cross laces on the inside of a 



WOOD TURNING 



79 



belt. To tie a raw-hide belt lace, make an extra hole 
or slit, narrow and short, with the small blade of your 
knife, as at A, A (Fig. 138); pull the lace through and 




i^ 



Fig. 1.3S 



hook it by cutting a little gash (Fig. 139) in the edge of 
the lace, which will slide back against the belt, and jjre- 
vent the end slipping through. 

Belt-hooks are metal hooks (Fig. 140) made of soft 
iron or steel, and are of different lengths for light or 
heavy belts. They are most convenient, as the entls of 












Fig. 142 

the belts can quickly be hooked together, but they are 
noisy, as they give out a sharp click every time they hit 
the pulley, and the continual pounding against the pulley 



wears the hole in the belt larger and larger, until the 
hooks are torn out. If used at all, the holes for the hooks 
must be punched with the belt punch a di.stance back 
equal to half the extreme length of the hook, that the 
ends of the belt may be held firmly together, as 
shown in Fig. 141, and not as in Fig. 142. 

The short ends of the hooks are always to be on the 
inside of the belt, against the pulley. If the long body 
of the hook were against the pulley, especially a small 
lathe pulley, the belt would slide on the two surfaces 
of iron instead of turning the pulley around. 

LATHE TOOLS 

(Cutting tools to be used on work held between centers) 

The Large Gouge (Fig. 143) 

This is your roughing-out tool, and should be ground 
with as much nose, or curve, on the end as the hollow 





Fig. 143 



Fig. 144 



of the tool is deep. It is sharpened with a stone, shaped 
for the purpose, and called a slip-stone. Both tool and 
stone are held up free in the air. Rub the stone on the 



80 



WOOD TURNING 



iirind until a feather edge is felt down in the hollow, 
which is then removed by rubbing with the round edge 
of the slip (Fig. 144). 

The large gouge is held so that it cuts high up on the 




wood, and tangent to the wood (Fig. 145), with the 
handle of the chisel held firmly in your right hand, 
against your hip. 

Directions for Holding Large Gouge 

On rest fir.st, with handle down, and against your hip, 
and the grind of the tool rubbing, but not cutting the 
wood. Lift handle gently with right hand, until cutting 
edge cuts, moving the gouge to the right and left, the 
whole length of the wood. 

Beginners often hold the chisel in a horizontal posi- 
tion, as shown in Fig. 146, and then wonder why the 
cutting edge is knocked off so quickly. 

Lower your handle. 

The tool may be hekl so that it cuts at its outer point, 
but if rolled over slightly, toward either side, it makes 
a more shearing, and therefore smoother cut (Fig 147). 




Fiu. 140 



Fig. 147 



Large Skew (Fig. 148) 
This tool, which is the "smooth-plane" in wood- 
turning, is ground on both sides to enable you to turn 
in either direction — toward the right or left — the cutting 
edge being askew, or at an angle with the sides of the 
chisel. 



By holding the skew in the proper manner, about 60° 
with the wood, and the chisel also being ground askew, 
instead of square across, the surface of the wood is cut 



WOOD TURNING 



81 



and smoothed off iu the direction of and with the grain, 
instead of scraped across the grain antl rougliened. 




Cut at a point near the obtuse angle A, A (Figs. 149, 
150), the long acute angle being held high up in the air, 
away from the wood. Begin to cut 2 ins. or 3 ins. from 
either end of your wood, pushing your chisel clear off the 




Fig. 15u 

other end. Never start at the extreme end, as the force 
of the lathe will draw your chisel into the end of the re- 
volving wood, and either split the piece, or throw the 
chisel out of your hands. 



Directions for Using Large Skew 

Feet far apart. 

Chisel on rest first — lift with right hand until grind 
rests on wood without cutting. 

Lift gently, until cutting edge begins to cut, moving 
your whole body to right or left, without stepping or 
moving your feet. 

Small Skew (Fig. 151) 
This is your fine cutting tool, to make V grooves (Fig. 
152) and beads (Fig. 153), and cut down square shoul- 



FlG. l.-il 



ders, and should be ground on both sides, with as long 
a bevel as the temper of the tool wdll allow — a i-in. bevel 





Fig. 153 



82 



WOOD TURNING 



is not too long — then sharpened without a second bevel, 
by holding the grind flat on the oil-stone. This tool is 
a very hard tool to hold rightly, so that it will not 
"run" — jump off your line to the right or left — and its 
proper use will re(|uire much patient practice and 
thought. 

Turning work is seldom sandjjapered — these exer- 
cises never — because the tool, if held rightly, will smooth 
and polish up the work as it cuts, much better than 
sandpaper, and without rounding over corners. The 
tool may be held in a wrong way, with its cutting edge 
up free and high, and not resting on the grind — making 
the work rough and full of "rings'" — and it may be held 
rightly, with the grind hekl firmly against the wood to 
polish — the cutting edge barely touching — then by 
lifting the handle of the tool gently, the cutting edge is 
made to cut, the grind polishing immediately after. 

The obtuse angle (Fig. 154) of the small skew must 



always be used in cutting V grooves and beads, as the 
long point of any tool could not be guided truly down 
a slant or around a C}uarter circle without making rings 
in the work, as there is no supporting grind immediately 
next to your point to steady it. The obtuse angle has 
this supporting steel or grind on both sides. 



The reason the obtuse angle cuts smoother than the 
acute is illustrated very simply in Fig. 155, which shows 




why the front of the tooth of a cross-cut saw is given a 
bevel or pitch. A board is shown, across which we wish 
to make a deep mark with a knife; holding the knife as 
at A, it will push harder and tear the wood more than if 
held nearly perpendicular as at B. But if held as at C, 
it begins to cut gently up the blade from the point, 
preparing the wood for the sharp cutting point, making 
a shearing or slanting cut very smooth and fine. It 
follows that the cutting edge of a cross-cut saw tooth 



Fig. 15G Fig. 1.")7 

should incline forward a< at D (Fig. 156), rather than 
stand pei-pendicular as at E (Fig. 157), or hooked, as at 
F (Fig. 158). 



WOOD TURNING 



83 




I as you would chop with a hatchet, by making the lathe- 
I rest the fulcrum of your lever, lifting the handle of your 
chisel straight up, throwing the obtuse angle of your 
chisel straight down into the V (Fig. 162). 



The small skew, held as at G (Fig. 159), with the ob- 
tuse point cutting, will cut more easily and do smoother 
work than if held as at H (Fig. 160), with the acute angle 
cutting. 




In cutting V grooves, the tool is, of course, rolled over 
to the right or left, as you cut either side of the groove 
(Fig. 161), but there is danger in laying over the tool, 
as the slanting chisel is quickly drawn into the revolving 
wood, making it "run" or jump off your line in the 
direction in which it slants. A point will not "run," 
so by using the extreme point only, of the obtuse angle, 
holding your tool high up on the wood , raising your rest 
to help get the tool up, beginners may turn V grooves 
and beads without running. 

Better results will be gained if instead of pushing the 
tool into the wood to make the V, the V is chopped out 




To cut beads or convex curves, first knife between 
the curves with the long acute point of the tool, then with 
the tool laid flat on its side, and high up on the wood as at 
A (Fig. 163), start the cut with the obtuse angle of the 




tool, and as the cut proceeds, the tool must be gradually 
drawn toward you as at B, or the grind at x will scrape 
and spoil the bead already made. Finish the quarter 



84 



circle with the tool well forward, as at C. The tool 
must at all times be held at right angles to the wood, 
as shown. 



WOOD TURNING 

like that at 13 (Fig. 170). The reason for this is very 




Fiii. 164 



To cut square shoulders, cut with the acute point, and 
swing the tool to the right or left, until the grind is at 
right angles to the wood (Fig. 164). 

Small Gouge 

This cutting tool should be ground somewhat differ- 
ently from the large gouge, and sharpened so that the lips 
(Fig. 165) — two points on the curved end of the tool — 
will do all the work. The nose must be only as long as 
the chisel is deep, but the grind is continued farther up 
and around the sides (Fig. 166) than in the large 
gouge (Figs. 167, 168), to give the lips a thin, knife edge. 
Care must be taken to grind all the steel off, outside the 
cutting edge at A (Fig. 109), to leave the proper shape, 




Fig. 100 Fig. 167 Fig. 168 

plain. In making hollows, half circles, or concave 
curves, the chisel is rolled partly over to start the curve 
at the lips. The gouge, ground as at B (Fig. 171), will 
cut straight down for a -j^in., making a true half circle, 
while the cutting edge or lip of a gouge, ground as at 

4- 



FiG. 169 




Fig. 170 Fig. 171 

A, will be pushed off immediately on entering the wood, 
making a curve like that shown at A, two of which 
make a poor half circle. 

To make an opening, hold the gouge horizontally as 
at C (Fig. 172) and cut or scrape the groove, keeping 
well within your dimension lines; then mil your tool 
nearly over, as at D (Fig. 173), with the grind at right 



WOOD TURNINO 



85 




right or left, at each cut, to get the grind at rij; 
to the wood. 



it angles 



angles to the wood. Push the gouge forward, rolling 
it over at the same time, and the grind will push the 
lips sidewise, out into the curve. Notice at E (Fig. 174), 




how the beveled grind is lying against the finished 
curve, and as the gouge is pushed forward and rolled 
over, the cutting lip is forced down and out, making a 
quarter circle almost automatically — a very easy method 
for beginners. 

Cut down to the center of the curve only, or on top 
of the grain — never try to run up against the grain on 
the other side of the curve. Cut down from the surface 
of the cylinder, swinging your chisel well over to the 



To Center Wood, and Clamp in Lathe 

If the wood is sc^uare or rectangular, the crossing of 
the diagonals will locate your center (Fig. 175). If the 





Fig. 175 Fig. 176 

piece is a split piece, of many sides, the center may be 
located by setting the points of the dividers a distance 
apart equal to the distance from any edge of the piece 
to the approximate center. Then with one point of 
the compass over the edge, draw the shape of the piece 
in miniature at the center (Fig. 176). 

With an extra live center, provided by your instructor, 
drive the spurs deep into one end of the wood. Never 
drive the wood on the live center at your lathe — the 
lathe is too fine a machine for such rough usage. Oil 
the other end of your wood, setting the wood up on end, 
that the oil may penetrate deeply. See that the counter- 
shaft and the Hve spindle run easily by pulling on the 
connecting belt. Place the wood in the lathe, clamping 
the tail stock firmly, then screw up the dead spindle 
until the cup center is forced deeply into the oiled end 



86 



WOOD TURNING 



of your wood — so deeply that the live spindle will not 
turn. Do not move the shifting lever, but grasp the 
wood with both hands, and turn it back and forth in 
the lathe, until a deep ring is made in the wood by the 
cup center. Unscrew the dead spindle a half turn, and 
by pulling on the belt, try if the wood will turn with the 
cone pulley. Loosen the dead spindle another half 
turn, until the live spindle and wood revolve easily, 
then clamp the set screw or lever of the dead sjjindle 
carefully. 

Do not move the shifting lever, but .set your rest 
before starting. Move up and clamp your rest, so that 
it is parallel with the lathe centers, and about | in. or j 
in. above the center of your wood, also about J in. back 
from the highest corner of your wood. Do not move 
the shifting lever, but try your lathe again, by grasping 
and pulling the belt, to see that the wood revolves easily 
and does not strike the rest at any corner. Never start 
your lathe before clamping your rest in position, and 
never move your rest while the lathe is running — it is 
a dangerous and foolish thing to do. Remember, a 
piece of wood, insecurely fastened in your lathe, and 
revolving at 3,000 revolutions per minute, is a dangerous 
thing to play with. 

Now start your lathe — standing back out of danger — 
by moving over the shifting lever — slowly, slowly. 

To Rough Out and Caliper 

With the large gouge grasped in your right hand, and 
helil firmly on the rest with the left — rolled over slightly 



to make a shearing cut — push gently into the wood, 
moving from end to end, back and forth, until the cor- 
ners are cut off. Stop your lathe at first to see if the 
wood is round; later on you can safely lay your hand on 
the revolving wood, and feel for any high places. 

Move up the rest J in. away from cylinder as soon as 
corners are cut off. 

It is better practice, for beginners, to sto]5 the lathe 
to caliper the diameter. Do not force the calipers over 
the roimd edges, as the legs merely spring apart. Later 
on caliper the revolving piece, holding the calipers 
lightly again.st the wood, or the forward leg will be carried 
over the edge by the friction. Set your outside calipers 
to a dimension greater than the drawing calls for and 
make a cylinder of the same diameter from end to end. 
Set your calipers J in. less and try again. Show it to your 
instructor. Stop your lathe and move up your rest. 

With your large skew in the right hand and held 
firmly on the rest with the left, the long acute point of 
the chisel well up in the air, out of danger, feet far apart, 
polish with the grind, lift the handle of your tool until 
the cutting edge bears on the wood, smooth your cylin- 
der, remembering to start 2 ins. or 3 ins. from either 
end with the large skew. Caliper this smooth cylinder, 
that it may be the same diameter from end to entl. 
Show it to your instructor. 

Set the calipers yV ii^- '^ss and try again, and show it 
to your instructor. 

Now set the calipers to the exact dimension called for 
on the drawing, and show to your instructor a cylinder, 



perfectly smooth and polished, free from any bumps 
or rings, and of the required diameter from end to end. 

Cutting Off 

With your rule and a \cry sharp lead pencil, mark off 
the required length of your cylinder (Fig. 177), leaving 



WOOD TURNING • 87 

to either side, to cut out wide V grooves, to make room 




much more wood at your live center than at your dead 
center, because your live center spurs are revolving, and 
will dull your tools if struck, while the dead center is 
still — dead. 

With your }-in. scraping tool, held horizontally, and the 
flat side up (Fig. 178), push in gently, well outside the 
dimension line, making the square groove wider than 
the chisel, to prevent the heating of the tool by friction. 
A sufficient diameter must be left at the bottom of the 
groove to keep the wood solid and stable, while cut- 
ting down the square shoulders. With the small skew 
held horizontally, and swung to either side so that 
the grind is at right angles to the wood, push in with the 
long acute point of the tool, slightly deeper than the 
square groove (Fig. 179). Swing your tool still farther 




for your chisel, that the point may not be burned, at 
the same time cutting off ^ in. thick shavings from the 
square shoulders, until you are back to your dimension 




ss 



WOOD TURNING 



lines, widening your V out each time, until the diameter 
at the tail end is only -^ in. or yV i"- and at the live end 
i- in. (Fig. 180). (Why larger at the live end?) 

With the fingers of your left hand spread out and 
around the cylinder, to catch it grasp the skew in your 
right hand and push in at the live end of your wood, 
cutting the cvliniler entirely free at that end, and it 




Fig. 181 



will stop in your hand (Fig. 181). There still remains the 
little • dead end on your cylinder, which can be cut 
around and broken off with your skew held in your 
hand. Ends of cylinders are cut off either square or 
slightly hollow or concave. If concave at all, your in- 
structor will not accept an end showing a hollow deeper 
than bV in. 

Cutting off, without breaking out the end, is difficult 
work. After cutting off, show to your instructor, and 
ask his permission to cut another inch off your cylinder, 
then another, and another. The cylinder need not be 
centered with the live center punch each time. Screw 
it in your lathe and true it off, making it smaller each 
time it is cut off. 




'TTOT; 



.^ 














T 




- 




■' 







"■f-'f-"? '"»■■'■?■'' <"<'r''#"*f'^»''i'»"f 



■-\-i-i-4i^-f--''f--i--'f--g--i!--f-i---i"^--i~ 

1S3 



WOOD TURNING 



89 



These simple elements — square and V grooves, concave 
and convex curves — should be cut without the aid of 
a templet or form, the shapes being gauged by the eye 
alone. (Figs. 182, 183, 184.) 

Where great accuracy of outline is required, the shape 
of the curve is transferred from the drawing to a thin 



the skews and gouges — are used on wood held between 
centers, at the ends, and with the exception of the large 
skew, cut directly across the grain. In turning rosettes, 
and patterns for pulleys, glued up of many segments (Fig. 
185), the long cutting edges of the cutting tools would 
follow the grain of the wood and "run." Scraping tools 




^^ 



i'^f-^ 



■; i i ^j^^ t ; ^ ^• ■^ j ^ /^ ^ |^: 



Fig. 184 



sheet of metal or piece of wood, which is carefully cut 
or filed out, and used as a guide to secure the exact 
shape. 

Beautiful combinations of these elements, which in 
some form enter into practically every piece of turned 
work, can be made. (See Figs. 200-202.) 
Scraping Tools 

Scraping tools, ground on one side only, and with a 
shorter bevel than the cutting tools, are used to scrape 
out grooves and beads and hollows, when the wood is 
held in the lathe in such a position that the tool scrapes, 
at times, with the grain. Notice that the cutting tools — 




Fig. 185 



90 



WOOD TURNING 



(Fig. 186), of such shapes as are needed to make the 
required curves and squares, and ground only on one 



Square scraper 

Round nose 

Spear point 

Left skew ^ .^ 



< \ 



Right skew- 



Inside square 

scraper turned 

over 



Fig. 186 

side, are necessary for this wort;, because they will not 
"run" by following the grain. 

Your tool drawer contains four face plates, wliich are 
numbered, and must be fitted only to that lathe which 
has a corresponding number. 

It is much safer to saw off the corners of your wood 
at the band saw, after marking out the circle with the 
dividers, than to turn them off in your lathe, for fear 
both of splitting your wood, and of hurting your class- 
mates with the flying pieces. Screw the face plate on 
the live spindle, ami if the wood is soft pine or white 
wood, screw it on the center screw immediately by push- 



ing hard and turning the wood slowly. If the wood is 
hard a small, shallow hole must be bored to start the 
screw. 

Push the tail stock out of the way, set and clamp your 
rest at the center of your wood (Fig. 187) , and J in. away 
from and parallel to it, if the face of the block is to be 
trued off. 




Fig. 187 

Or clamp your rest outside the circumference, if the 
edge is to be smoothed off (Fig. 188), or at an angle with 
the wood (Fig. 189), and scrape with one side of the 
spear point. 

Before starting your lathe, grasp your cone pulley 
and push sidewise, and if there is any movement, screw 
up with your hand the set screw at the left end of your 
lathe, until the side movement ceases, then clamp the 
set screw with the set nut. 

Try the lathe by pulling on the l^elt, to see that it 
runs easily. 

If the diameter of the wood is between 4 ins. and 6 ins.. 



WOOD TURNING 



91 



use the second speed until the work is trued off ; then finish 
with the fastest speed. For larger diameters use second 





or third speed. If the chisel is allowed to "dig," or if 
it is forced to take off heavy shavings, the wood will be 
"screwed up" on the center screw of your face plate, 
until a liole is bored by the screw, allowing the wood to 
fall from the lathe. For diameters above 4 ins. , the wood 
will have to be fastened more securely to the face plate 




by screws through the holes bored for the purpose. 
Scraping tools are to be held horizontally, always — 
scraping only from the center of the piece forward to 
the edge. What would happen if the tool wei-e pushed 
against the wood back of the center? 

To true off surfaces scrape with the wide square chisel, 
which must be ground and sharpened perfectly square 
acro.ss, at all times (Fig. 190). 



P--^ 




To scrape beads, use the square or spear point tool, 
moving sidewise to the right and left (Figs. 191, 192). 

In making hollows, it is better practice, and smoother 
work is made, if the round nose is pushed nearly to the 
bottom of the groove first, and then drawn back to 
smooth the sides, working from the bottom of the groove 
out (Fig. 193). 




Fig. 193 



92 



WOOD TURNING 



Chucking 
A chuck may be defiHe<l as a contrivance, usuallj' 
made of wood, fixed to the Uve spindle or the face pKate 
of your turning lathe, for holding the material to be 
turned. Many pieces, such as patterns for pulleys, 
round or octagon rings, spheres, have to be turned on 




both faces or on all edges, or linth faces and edges. 
Having turned one face of a pulley or ring, it is impossi- 
ble to turn it over and screw it to the face plate without 
marring or spoiling the finished face. So an extra piece 
of wood, preferably soft pine or poplar, is screwed to 
your face plate with screws,. to form a chuck. A hole 



i.s turned in this wood, the exact diameter of the finished 
face or edge, anil with care the half-turned pulley or 
ring or sphere is pushed in, tried until it runs perfectly 
true, and then turned as securely as if fa.stened to the 
face plate with several screws. The hole in the chuck 
must not be made too deep, as the piece must have a 
back to lie against to run true. 

Figure 194, a shows a chuck screwed to the face plate, 
and holding a square ring, which is ready to be trued on 
the last face. 

Figure 194, h gives a sectional view of a chuck, hold- 




ing the finished face of a small pulley, the other face 
being ready to turn. 

Figure 194, c gives a sectional view of a completed 
octagonal ring held in its chuck. 

In turningaround ring, two chucks will have to be used. 

The drawing also shows the templet, or shape, which 
can be used as a guide in making the perfect curve. 

A sphere is a beautiful exercise to turn in a chuck. 
First turn it as round as is jiossible between centers, 
and cut it off (Fig. 195). .Make a chuck, half the 



WOOD TURNING 



93 



iliameter of the sphere in depth, and shaped out inside, 
so that the chuck will bind hard at the outer edge only, 
but having a back stop O, that the sphere may not be 
pushed too far in (Fig. 196). Keep in mind that turn- 
ing between centers made the jjiece round across the 
grain, so your first work is to get it round lengthwise. 





Push the piece into the cliuck with the bad ends of the 
sphere on a horizontal line parallel to the face plate — or 
more simply, with one of the bad ends toward you, that 
the piece will turn over endwise. Do not try to get it 
perfectly round lengthwise at first, but keep revolving 
the sphere in the chuck (Fig. 197), that the piece may 
l)e scraped with the grain, then at 45° with the grain, 
both ways, as at A and B (Fig. 198). One chuck is 
sufficient for the sphere, as the hole may be made smaller 
by merely scraping of^' the face of the chuck. 

If the material for the sphere is precious, such as ivory, 
or if you have a square block of wood, but slightly 
larger than the sphere wanted, it is of cour.se impossible 
to turn it first, between the dead and live centers. 
C'huck it immediately, by cutting a square hole in the 
chuck to receive the material (Fig. 199). 




The e.xerci.ses on page 94 (Figs. 200-202) are to be 
filled and waxed in the lathe, before cutting off centers. 

Centers are to be sawed off with back saw, while the 
exercise is held in the bench hook. The ends are then 
cut rounding and smooth with sharp chisel, sand- 
papered, filled, and waxed. 

Face Plate Turning. Pin Tray 

Select a piece of bird's-eye or curly haril maple, or 
knotty piece of curly cherry or .sycamore. 

Saw I in. larger than required diameter, glue on pojjlar 
or pine piece, sawed to about diameter of face plate, 
fasten to face plate with short screws (Fig. 204-a). 

Turn, using highest speed of lathe, with scraping tools 
only. Sharpen scraping tools carefully before taking 
off last shavings, or the tools will tear the thin edges of 
wood. 

Reduce speed of lathe and sandpaper, first with No. 
1, finishing with No. sandpaper. Sandpaper will burn 
the wood if lathe is run at highest speed. 



94 



WOOD TURNING 



Coynirit/Uibll'aiit^ l/ /'^ ■stt-nJ'lc g/eittCticS, — CraZC^J, S(i iA.a.rt,.s, kdUai/vS. 




Figs. 200-202 



WOOD TURNING 



95 



—4- 











CAt/t-CK TuryLiua. 




To i^CLir/i oiA.t' ai^ ocla,' 



/'kt i9uaj<, a.iA,cC /ay il- tf^ au. rkc jcUh i/ /i>.o sau.a.r&. 



/xuisA, - S Arc m.^ 0.9-0,- Drajlh 



Fig. 203 



96 



WOOD TURNING 



Finishing 

Stop lathe and fill the trays with wood filler, letting 
it dry 15 or 20 minutes. 

Start the lathe at slowest speed, ruliliinp; the filler 
into the wood, instead of merely ruhhiii"; it off. Let 





Pin Tniy 



Pin Tray and Cushion 



dry 24 hours and repeat, ])olishing after each coat with 
soft cloth. 

Stop lathe, and wax, rubbing wax over and over 
trays, and let dry 15 or 20 minutes. 



Start lathe at slowest speed and polish wax with .soft 
cloth, and let tlry 24 hours. Rejjeat coat of wax and 
let dry 24 hours. 

Unscrew face plate from block, screw^ block into 
bench vi.se and saw off tray, cutting the tray from the 
block in ca.se the lathe heats the tray, causing it to warp. 

Carefully scrape wood and glue from bottom of tray 
with sharp chi.sel, fill one coat, and wax. 

The pin cushion may be bought in any dry goods 
store, the diameter of the center part of the tray being 
J in. less than the diameter of the cushion. 

To hold the cushion in place, undercut the sides of 
the opening to receive it — make the hole larger in 
diameter at the bottom than at the top (Fig. 204:, b). 

HAND MIRROR 

(Combination Turning and Cabinet Exercise, Fig. 205) 

Stock Bill 

1 P — S"xO"x2" or j-"j" — frame and handle. 
1 P — 5|"x5|"xJ" — glass back. 

Screw to face plate a block of yellow ]5oplar C ins. 
scjuare and j in. or | in. thick, and turn off face true. 

Screw to this block the piece for frame and handle, 
as shown, placing screws outside of r()un<l frame (Fig. 
206). 

With dividers set to 5 ins., the distance from center of 
live .spindle to bed of lathe, describe arc on lower end 
of frame piece, and saw at band saw. Turn out rabbet 
for glass, with radius of 2-^-^ ins., making rabbet x\ "i- 



WOOD TURNING 



97 








98 



WOOD TURNING 




deep, turning out the whole diameter 4y^5- ins. to y\ i'''- 
deep. Unscrew frame from ljh)ek and saw block round, 
at band saw, making it about 5| ins., the diameter of 
outside of frame. 

Turn, on the block, a raised place fV in- liigh. ^ucl 
exactly 4^% ins. iliameter, making it a. chuck, on which 
fit the frame just turned (Fig. 207). 

Turn the frame, making any style desired, plain or 
ornamental — the plain is more serviceable. 

Care must be taken not to cut down too far on outside 
of frame, or handle will be too thin; the outside of frame 
and hantUe must be sawed at band saw. 



Run the lathe slowly and cut out center piece last, 
as it helps hold the f in. wide frame on chuck securely. 
Push in with diamond point held at an angle to cut 
straight in, and center piece will fall away (Fig. 208). 

Sandpaper frame lightly with fine sandpaper. 

Round over face of handle with spoke-shave and file, 
to match arc of circle on face of frame, and sandpaper 
carefully. 




/WV 




FiQ. 207 



WOOD TURNING 



99 



Saw out glass back — it is easier to saw it than turn it. 
Round over edge slightly, and plane inside face for 
glue joint. 

Fill and wax following directions under Finishing, 




taking care that no wax or filler get on back of frame 
or inside of glass back, as glue will not hold. 

Fasten mirror in place with many little triangular 
glue blocks, let dry 2 hours, and glue down glass back 
with hand screws. 

Cut off glue, sandpaper, fill and wax corner. 

If a longer handle to frame is desired, turn the frame 
round, in separate piece. 



Make glass back and handle in one piece, sawing 
away the thickness at glass back to receive the frame, 
as shown (Fig. 209), fitting the round frame to the han- 
dle, at the scrolls. 

TURNED INKSTAND AND PENHOLDER 
Construction (Fig. 210) 

Plane one face of base true, saw round at band 
saw, and screw true face to face plate, using short 
screws that will not come through base. 

Turn the molding on edge of base, true and smooth 
outside face, then sandpaper with No. ^ sandpaper, 
while lathe is running slowly, or sandpaper will burn 
wood. 

Filling and Waxing 

Unscrew face plate from lathe, use white filler, and 
fill base, letting filler dry 10 minutes or longer. Return 
face plate to lathe, run lathe slowest speed, and rub 
filler in wood with cloth. Polish filler with clean cloth, 
and let dry 24 hours. Repeat process and let dry 24 
hours. If wood is open grained, give three coats of 
filler. 

Waxing 

Unscrew face plate from lathe and wax the base, 
letting wax dry ten minutes. Return to lathe, run 
slowest speed and polish, then let dry 24 hours. Re- 
peat, and let dry 24 hours, giving two or more coats as 
wood requires. 



100 



WOOD TURNING 




//?ut. = Sf "/. S^ "a ^ "— /iz J-£ . 
£. /^ -^4 "X / "x ^ "_ /^, ia.c 



f./b/-caU/' 3/ai^da.raU. 



'A'- a// /r • ' ■ '- ' '" ■ 



'iiA-. 



i ur Hid- 



ed^ j^/tcis /i' Aafl ^ a!ia,yt^. <d)nri/s 



^;;s::^c2 




Fig. 210 



WOOD TURNINO 



101 



To Turn Ring 

Saw piece round at band saw, bore hole in center to 
receive center screw of face plate, and screw to face 
plate slowly, to prevent splitting. 

Turn ring to diameter, also inside diameter, also -i^'m. 

L3'^ 




8 






mi 






i-..-.^. 



^i;^ 



beads on face, as shown on drawing (Fig. 211). Sand- 
paper outside surface, inside of hole, and beads, care- 
fully, while lathe runs slowest speed. 

Knock out center screw on face plate, and screw on 
block of yellow poplar with three screws, making of 
yellow poplar a chuck, to hold finished face of ring. 
Make hole in chuck only J in. deep, push in ring, and turn 
to required thicknetss, f in., turning the -^ "i- beads on 
this face also. Sandpaper with lathe running slowly. 

Fill with white filler, two coats, letting each coat dry 
24 hours. 



Wax the ring, giving two or more coats, as wood re- 
quires, letting wax dry 24 hours between each coat. 
Turn twotopornaments in one pieceof wood (Fig. 212). 




Sandpaper carefully, or sandpaper will spoil little 
sharp elements. 

Fill and wax. 

Cut off ornaments carefully, especially at top round 
end, bore J in. hole in chuck for dowel of ornament, push 
it in, and sandpaper top end round. 






Fig. 213 
Same process may be followed with posts around 
inkwell (Fig. 213). 




102 



WOOD TURNING 




■8- : 



H 



I 

y.-. 






Fig. 214 



-l\^ 



Fig. 215 



Turn only one upright standard at a time (Fig. 214). 

Turn two feet in one piece of wood (Fig. 215). 

If the 3 ins. long connecting rods for half rings vibrate 



-J-- 



'^li? 



<t)|^ 



J":!?! 



^--7^--ilt--:-7^- 



/^■/^^/. 



JZ 



3Z 



too much, make instead ^^ i 
which may he jilaned at tlie 
(Fig 216)." 



1. diameter straight rods, 
l)cnch, in (he bench hook 



Assembling Parts 

Saw ring into two e(|ual jxirts, sawing with the grain. 

Plane top ends of each half ring, one end at a time, 
in bench hook, screw in vise, and bore \ in. diameter holes 
with drill bit, which will not split wood if hole is bored 
slowly. Mark off centers for connecting roJs in sides 
of half rings, x\ in. down from ends. Bore slowly, hold- 
ing half ring in hand. 

Do not glue until everything is fitted dry. 

Find center of under .side of half circles, and bore for 
upright .standards. 

Lay out on base two center lines at right angles to 
each other, marking with fine lead pencil. 

Draw line parallel to the line running with the grain, 
lyV ins. back from it. The centers of holes for upright 
standards are on this line, 3J ins. apart. 

Continue center lines to under side of base, and lay out 
centers of holes for feet, \ in. in from outside edge of base. 

Fit connecting rods of half circles dry, without glue. 

Glue upright standard.s into half circles, also top 
ornaments. 

Glue upright .standards into base, and connecting 
rods into half rings, at one time, taking great care that 
upright standards stand vertically, and not in wind, and 
that connecting rods are straight and true. 

Glue in feet, and let dry 2 hours. 

Glass Inkwell 
The simpler square, cut glass inkwell is in better taste. 
No dimensions can be given for these inkwells, as 



WOOD TURNING 



103 



each one is untrue in itself — 1^ ins. square is about the 
size. 

Hold inkwell on base in position shown on drawing, 
and mark a short line along each side. Bore with J in. 
drill bit, so that diameter of bit just touches line on 
outside (see drawing). 

Plane off one side of little posts down to the dowel — 
do not plane the dowel — and fit posts to base dry, with- 
out glue, with inkwell in place. 

Glue in posts, with inkwell in place, holding posts 
with fingers until glue is set. Let dry 2 hours. 

Remove inkwell, and re-wax and polish with clean 
cloth. 

Base may be made rectangular in shape, 6 ins.x4 ins., 
using same turned penholder and same turned feet, with 
a distance of 4j ins. between centers of upright stand- 
ards, giving space for two inkwells, or ba.se may be 
made elliptical in shape — 6 ins. x4 ins. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUR CONDUCT IN THE 
TURNING SHOP 

Your place is at j'our own lathe, always. 

Be careful not to interfere with other men, when 
leaving your lathe to show your work to your instructor. 

Should your work be interfered with by the stopping 
of the motor, or the absence of your instructor, or for 
any other reason, stand at your lathe; remember your 
place is at your lathe. 

Permission must be asked, at all times, to leave the 
shop. 



Quiet talking is permitted only as long as it does not 
interfere with your work. 

Congregating at the grindstones or the band saw will 
not be permitted. If you must wait your turn, wait at 
your lathe, then move up not closer than six feet from 
the grindstone or band saw. Crowding a man at the 
machines, or distracting his attention, or interfering 
with him in any way is dangerous, and will not be 
allowed. 

The wood given you is to practice on, not to throw 
away, so save all cylinders for practice. Your instruc- 
tor's permission must be secured before taking another 
piece of wood. 

Small cylinders or ends are not to be thrown on the 
floor, for fear of causing your class-mates to fall by 
stepping on them. Such pieces are to be thrown into 
a box, provided for the purpose. 

The long stick, used to throw the belts on the cone of 
the countershaft, must be returned to its projjer place 
by the person using it. 

In throwing the heavier horizontal belts, be careful 
to grasp the over-head stringers or the countershaft, 
firmly, with one hand, while throwing the belt with the 
other, for fear of being pulled from the ladder. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 

Turning 

1. ]\Iake a sketch of a speed lathe and countershaft, 
and name each part. 



104 



WOOD TURNING 



2. How is the size of a lathe designated? 
Where is the measurement taken? 

3. Why have a collar on each end of tlie counter- 

shaft? 

4. Wliy have collars on shifting rod? 

5. Why is the bed of the lathe planed true? 
G. What is the head stock of a lathe? 

7. Describe the live spindle fully and tell what is 

fastened to it. 

8. Make a sketch of the live or spur center, and tell 

why it is so named. 

9. Why are the boxes or bearings split, and how are 

they adjusted? 

10. How is any lateral or side motion taken up? 

11. What is the tail stock? 

12. Describe the tail spindle. 

13. Make sketches of two tail centers, and give rea- 

sons why you think the cup center is the better 
one. 

14. How do you clamp the dead spindle, that it may 

not unscrew and allow the wood to Hy from the 
lathe? 

15. What is a lathe rest, and why is it necessary? 

Countershaft 

16. What is the use of the countershaft? 
Is it necessary? Why? 

17. What is a tight pulley? A loose pulley? 

18. What holds the countershaft and boxes in place? 

19. Make sketches of two kinds of hangers. 



20. Explain carefully how different speeds are obtained 

by means of the cone pulleys. 

21. What is the shifting rod? 

What forks and collars are fastened to this rod ? 
Explain their use. 

Oiling Loose Pulleys 

22. Why is it necessary to oil the loose pulley fre- 

cjuently? 

j\Iake a sketch showing where the pulley may be 
oiled. 

Make a .sketch showing how the loose pulley is 
oiled by means of a grease cup screwed on to the 
end of the countershaft. 

What is a compression grease cup? 

Make a sketch showing another method of oiling 
a loose pulley, in which a "bushing" is used. 

ilake a sketch of a loo.se and tight pulley so ar- 
ranged that the strain on the belt is reduced 
when on the loose pulley. 

Is this a good method? Why? 

27. Make a sketch of a countershaft so arranged that 

the lathe may be stopped as usual, and still have 
no loose pulley. 
Is this a good method? Why? 

28. How do loose pulleys cause so much trouble? 

29. j\lake a sketch of a poor method of oiling a 

loose pulley, and explain why it does not work 
well. 



23. 



26. 



WOOD TURNING 



105 



30. 
31. 



32. 



33. 



34. 



35. 



36. 



37. 



38. 



39. 



40. 



41. 



Care of the Lathe 

Give rules for care of the lathe. 

Should parts of the lathe ever be pounded apart 

with a hammer or pried apart with a screw- 
driver? Why? 
Is it necessary to take up the side or lateral motion 

of the live spindle as long as the wood is held 

between centers? 
When only is it necessary to take up all lateral 

motion? 

Speed of the Lathe 
At what speeds will the lathe run, and what size 

diameters may safely be turned at each speed? 
Why must hard wood be turned at a slower speed 

than soft? 
What speeds must be used for rough, unbalanced 

stock? 
For patterns glued up of many pieces? 

Belts 

Of what are belts made? What is a short-lap belt, 

and how are the pieces fastened together? 
Make a drawing showing how to lace a belt with 

wire or raw-hide belt lacing. 
Explain why this lacing must never be crossed on 

the inside of the belt. 
How do you fasten the ends of a raw-hide belt 

lacing? 
What are belt hooks? Make a sketch showing a 

belt fastened together properly with belt hooks. 



44. 



4,5. 



46. 



Which side of the hook is inside? Why? 

What objection is made to the use of belt hooks? 

LATHE TOOLS 
Large Gouge 

What is the large gouge used for? 

How should it be ground and sharpened? 

Why should the gouge be held tangent to the wood? 

What happens to the cutting edge if held hori- 
zontally? 

Explain why rolling the gouge over to get a shear- 
ing cut makes it cut smoother. 

Large Skew 

For what is the large skew used? Why is it ground 
askew? Why ground on both sides? 

Make a sketch showing how it is to be held high 
upon the wood. 

Is it safe to begin to cut with the large skew at 
either end of the revolving piece? Why? 

Small Skew 

For what work is the small skew used? 
How should it be ground and sharpened? 
Explain how a turning chisel may cut and smooth 

and polish much better than sandpaper. 
Why must the obtuse angle be used to make V's, 

and beads and bevels, rather than the acute 

angle of the tool? 



106 



WOOD TURNING 



Make a sketch of a knife blade in three positions, 
illustrating your argument. 

53. Will a point "run"? Explain how a skew may be 

held so that it will not run, even if it is rolled 
over to either side. 

54. Why "chop" with the skew, rather than push it 

into the wood? 

55. Give the complete directions, with sketches, for 

cutting beads with the obtuse angle of the small 
skew. 

56. To knife and cut down square shoulders, what 

point of the tool should be used? 
ilake a sketch showing how the grind or bevel of 
the tool mu.st be at right angles with the wood to 
cut down a square shoulder. 

Small Gouge 

57. Explain carefully how a small gouge is ground and 

sharpened. 
5S. Make a sketch showing the shape of a section of 
the tool, after the grind has been carried up and 
around the sides to prepare the lip.s for shai-pen- 
ing. 

59. .Make a sketch showing how the gouge is rolled 

nearly o-\er in starting to make a perfect half 
circle. 

60. J';x|)la,in wliy the gouge is pushed forward while 

tiic lip is cutting down the quarter circle. 
(')1. Should the grind be at right angles with the wood? 
Whv? 



To Center Wood 

62. How center rectangular or square wood? 
How center a piece of many unequal sides? 

63. Give full and careful directions for placing the wood 

in the lathe. 

64. Why oil the wood at one end? 

65. Should the rest be movetl while the wood is re- 

volving? 

66. What tool is used to measure diameters of cylinders? 

Name two kind.s. 

67. In laying out cylinders in the lathe, why leave a 

larger .space at the live center end? 
6S. How is the j in. scraping tool held? Why u,se flat 
side up? 

69. Explain carefully how to cut off a cylinder at both 

ends. 

70. Why make a wide V at either end in cutting off? 

71. What is a templet? Why are they used? 

Scraping Tools 

72. How are scraping tools ground? Why are scraping 

tools needed? Why scrape with the flat side 
up? 

73. State carefully the difference in the cutting of 

the regular turning chi.sels and the scraping 
chisels. 

74. ;\Iake a sketch showing the direction the grain runs 

in .some pieces of face-plate work. 

75. ]\Iake sketches of six scraping tools, and name each 



WOOD TURNING 



107 



79. 
80. 



Is it safe to turn off the square corners of a piece 

of wood screwed to your face plate? 
Name a lietter way to get rid of the corners. 
Make sketches showing two clii.sels that may be ' 83. 

used to turn off edges of face plate work. 
For large work, how is the wood fastened to the 84. 

iron face plate? 
To make beads, how do you hold the tools? 85. 

In making 'hollows, why is the tool pushed nearly 

into the required depth, first, then drawn out? 86. 



Chucking 



81. What are chucks? 



Why are they needed? 

ilake a sketch showing how a pulley is chucked to 

turn the last face. 
Make a sketch showing the two chucks necessary 

to turn a round ring. 
How is thin face-plate work held in the lathe to 

turn? 
Is it good practice to run the lathe very fast while 

sandpapering? Why? 
Describe carefully the "finishing" of woodwork 

in the lathe. 
Is it better practice to cut off such finished work in 

the lathe or at the bench? Why? 



CABINET MAKING 



Cabinet making differs from Carpentry in that the 
wood used is generally harder — such as oak, cherry, 
sycamore, maple, mahogany — to work which sharper 
tools are required, and since the hard woods have 
more curly grain than the soft, the cover of the plane- 
bit must be set so close as to leave but a hair line 
of cutting edge. 

In rough carpentry work joints are often made with 
the saw alone, and joints are nailed together, and 
moldings nailed on, even in the interior hard-wood 
finishing of houses, while in cabinet making nails 
are seldom used, the joints being glued and clamped 
together. 

Carpentry work, if finished (varnished), is varnished 
by having the varnish flowed on — that is, two or three 
coats are carefully brushed on very smoothly and left 
just from the brush — while cabinet work is usually given 
from three to five coats of rubbing varnish, then rubbed 
down with pumice stone and water ..or oil, to make a 
perfectly true surface, and then polished, or left dead or 
dull. 

In cabinet work, as well as in the better carpentry 
work, .several appliances are used to force the two or 
more pieces of wood together to make a good glued 
joint. These are hand screws — hand clamps — made of 



iron or wood, and large iron presses for veneering (which 
is gluing on a common board a thin, finely grained board 
or sheet of wood). 

These hand screws require care to use properly (Fig. 




217). The jaws must be kept parallel, or the two pieces 
being glued will be forced apart, rather than together, 
as shown. The shoulder screw A, and the shoulder 
jaw a, turn on each other easily and freely, there being 



CABINET MAKING 



109 



no thread in the holes of this jaw. The other jaw and 
screw, the clamp jaw and clamp screw do all the moving 
up, to tighten, so to use the hand screw properly, grasp 
the shoulder screw in the left hand, the clamp screw in 
the right, screw up or unscrew naturally, turning the 
whole hand screw around with the right hand, until the 
jaws are open far enough, then set the jaws by turning 
the shoulder screw with the left hand, screwing up to 
tighten only with the clamp screw in the right hand. 
An old form of hand screw, often seen in the factories, in 
the possession of foreigners "just over," is shown in Fig- 
ure 218. Very large hand screws are too clumsy to handle, 



^^ \V'sVV'.^k',vr __^ 



so for wide work hand clamps, made of wood or iron, 
are used. The back edge of the blade is notched out, 
that the shoulder block may be set any distance away 



I to jss^^> 




from the clamp screw (Fig. 219). When very heavy 
work is required, the blade or bar is made of heavy tim- 
ber and mounted on legs, while the screw is turned by 




a wheel of a large enough diameter to get a good lever- 
age (Fig. 220). 

Hand screws and hand clamps are sold by the length 
of jaw and the amount of opening, and cost from $2.00 
a dozen, for small 6 in. jaws, to $20.00 a dozen. 

A simple and cheap, as well as very satisfactory clamp 
to jonit up such work as table tops, or taboret tops, 
is shown in Figure 221. It consists of a strip of some 
stiff wood and a block glued and screwed on each 




Fig. 221 



Fig. 222 



end. Two wedges are also required. These simjile 
clamps, which are much used and easily made, arc 
shown in Figure 222. 



no 



CABINET MAKING 



The two or more boards to be glued must be jointed 
in one of two ways: the edges must be planed perfectly 
true and perfectly straight, or the edges may be jointed 
a little concave, only the thickness of one or two shav- 
ings concave, making the boards appear as shown in 




Figure 223, when ready to be glued. The argument in 
favor of the latter method is this, that no matter how 
well seasoned, the wood will dry faster at the open ends 
of the fibers than in the center of the board. By gluing 
with good glue, and forcing the boards together in the 
open center, the fibers at the ends, being under pre.ssure, 
are less likely to open, and leave a hair crack at the ends 
of the glue joint. 

A well made glue joint, using glue only, to hold two 
pieces of wood together, is considered quite as strong 
as a joint made by using dowel pins or tongues to con- 
nect the two pieces. The object of the pressure, in 
making all glue joints, is to force the glue entirely from 
between the two surfaces, up into the open pores of 
the wood, so that the glue, instead of lying in a layer 



between the two pieces, forms itself instead into hun- 
dreds of little dowels, connecting and extending up into 
the two pieces. A good glue joint, carefully split open 
with a chisel, will show these fine points of glue. 

In gluing ends of wood together, it is better to size 
the ends first — that is, fill the open ends of the fibers 
by rubbing into the jointed ends thin, hot glue, with the 
fingers. The object of sizing is to prevent the open pores 
of the wood taking all the water from the glue. 

Rubbed glue joints may be made by first jointing the 
edges perfectly straight, then rubbing the two glued 
surfaces together, pressing hard, until all the glue and 
air are rubbed out, and the pieces "stick." 

Glue, to work well and hold well, should be hot, and 
should be thin enough to flow easily. The wood also 
should be placed in a heating oven, until quite warm, 
that the glue may not be chilled when brushed on. 
Cold glue is poor stuff to work with; do not expect 
good results in using it, because when cold it does not 
flow up into the open pores and dry there, clutching 
the pieces together, but instead lies in a thick mass 
between the pieces, spoiling the joint and breaking 
open as soon as the boards receive a shock or sharp 
blow. 

Glue should be soaked in cold water over night if in 
thick pieces. If in thin pieces it softens quite easily 
while the water is heating. 

The glue pot should be a double pot, a kettle of water 
outside of a pot to hold the glue. Enough cold water 
should be poured over the glue to cover it (some kinds 



CABINET MAKING 



111 



of glue require much less), then this pot placed in the 
kettle of boiling water, the glue requiring to be stirred 
at intervals. To make glue at home, buy a half pound 
of some good, white glue for 10c. or 15e., place in a thick 
teacup, cover with water, then place the teacup in a 
tin cup full of water, and stir occasionally. 

Glue is made from the refuse parts of animals — car- 
tilage, strippings of hides — boiled down to a jelly. A 
quantity of zinc salts is stirred and mixed with it, to 
give it its white color — the more zinc stirred in, the 
whiter the glue. The lighter and white glues are neces- 
sary in cabinet work on account of the lighter colored 
woods now used; the old dark glues would show a black 
line in the joint in white maple. Capsules, to hold 
doses of quinine, are nothing but glue (gelatine). Glue 
nowadays is a clean, nice product, when compared with 
the vile, ill-smelling stuff formerly made. 

Dowels 

As stated above, nails are seldom used in cabinet 
work — glue is quite as strong to hold, and there is no 
marring of the surface with nail heads or nail holes. 
Where special strength is required in fastening together 
two or more pieces, holes are bored in each piece, and 
a short round pin or dowel is glued in the holes to stiffen 
the joint. The dowels really act as tenons, but as they 
can be bought to fit any size of bit used in the brace or 
boring machine, from J in. to 1 in., they are much more 
convenient and much cheaper than tenons, if the tenons 
are hand made. In chair work, especially, dowels are 



nearly always used, as it is much easier to bore a hole 
in the curved pieces of the chair, than to cut a tenon 
and a corresponding mortise in the pieces. 

Dowels are cut in a dowel machine, which has a cutter 
somewhat similar to a lead pencil sharpener, with the 
hole straight through, of course, instead of cone-shaped. 
They are sold at hardware stores, any size, in lengths 
of about 3 ft., and cost from Ic. to 2c. each. 

Preparing Hard Wood for Varnish or Wax 

In planing the cross grained and curly grained hard 
wood (and the cross grains and curls add greatly to the 
beauty, as well as to the value of hard wood), the plane- 
bit must be made much sharper and truer than for other 
work, not only on account of the hardness of the wood, 
but because the cover or breaker must be set down 
within a hair line of the cutting edge, thereby preventing 
the tearing of the grain. But even with the greatest 
care the plane-bit will tear slightly in very cross-grained 
wood — sandpaper will never smooth a torn surface — so a 
finer cutting tool is necessary — the cabinet scraper. 
This scraper, about 4 ins. long and 3 ins. wide, is made 
of thin saw steel. To sharpen it, the edges are first filed 
perfectly square, but slightly rounding from end to end, 
to prevent the corners digging, then rubbed with the oil- 
stone to take out the scratches made by the file, oil- 
stoned on the edges and down both sides to take off any 
feather edge. With a hard, smooth piece of steel (a file 
with the teeth ground off and the surface smoothed on 
the oil-stone) force the edge down, as shown in Fig. 



112 



CABINET MAKING 




224, until the edge looks like Fig. 225, a. Then with 
the same scraper steel, turn this wire edge back over 
the side of the scraper (Fig. 225, b). Hold the scraper 



z 



z 



up high, about 30° from the vertical. If well sharj)- 
ened, it will cut like the jilane, and leax'e no torn 
surfaces. 

Sandpaper 

Sandpaper spoils much more than it helps and should 
be used sparingly, especially on narrow, square edges, 
for fear of rounding over. On large, plane surfaces it 
is helpful in smoothing and polishing the wood, provided 
the wood has been carefully scrapetl and planed. Sand- 
paper does not help rough and badly prepared surfaces, 
but rather adds to the poor showing of the surface. 
To use sandpaper in the best way, hokl it in the fingers 
around an elastic block of rubber or cork. A block of 
wood makes a good sandpaper block, if two or three 
extra pieces are placed under the outside sheet to form 
a cushion. 

Sandpaper is made very cheajjly by machinery. A 



roll of paper passes under glue brushes, fastened to a 
large glue pot. After the surface is covered with glue, 
the paper passes vertically before a sand blast, which 
blows fine or coarse sand against the glued surface. 
The sanded paper then passes over hot rollers, which dry 
it immediately. It is then cut up into sheets or rolled 
up into rolls for the sandpaper machines. The cheapest 
quality of glue is used in the manufacture of sandpaper. 

Sandpaper is made fine or coarse, from No. 000 fine, 
to No. 3, No. 4, or No. 5, the last number so coarse as to 
be almost a "garden walk." 

It sells by the quire or ream in quantities, or by the 
sheet at ic. to Ic. a sheet retail. 

Finishing (Varnishing) 

There are several methods in use to prei)are the wood 
to receive the varnish. Raw or boiled linseed oil is 
sometimes used to enrich the grain before varnishing. 
This should be used very thin — one-half turpentine — 
and allowed to dry at least 24 hours. 

One or two coats of thin, white shellac varnish is 
often used before coating with copal varnish on fine 
mahogany, or cherry or white maple. Brushed on care- 
fully, allowed to dry at least 24 hours, and sandpapered 
very smooth with No. 00 sandpaper, this shellac varnish 
not only makes a beautiful, hard surface to receive the 
varnish, but holds the natural color of the wood, as it 
keeps the darker and more yellow colored copal from 
sinking into the grain. Varnish firms, generally, 
recommend this method. 



CABINET MAKING 



113 



Another and much used method is to fill the grain of 
the wood with wood filler, made of rock crystal, ground 
in oil. These fillers are cheap, and economical also, 
in savhig varnish, as they fill the grain of the wood, 
leaving a smooth, even surface, thereby saving several 
coats of varnish. The filler is sold in bulk or small cans; 
it is thinned with turpentine until it becomes a thin 
paste, which can be easily applied with a varnish brush. 
Brush on so as to cover the surface well, and let dry 
only until the filler begins to turn white, when it must 
be rubbed off immediately, rubbing with a cloth across 
the grain at first, to rub the filler into the grain, then 
with the grain to smooth and polish. Then let dry 24 
hours, and if necessary, or if specially smooth surfaces 
are desired, or if wa.x: is to be used, give another coat of 
filler. The cloths used to rub off the filler must be spread 
out or burned immediately or they will take fire (spon- 
taneous combustion). Filler is colored red for mahog- 
any, is left white for natural wood, brown for Flemish 
oak, dark for antique oak or weathered oak. The sav- 
ing by the use of fillers is very great, one or two coats 
of filler taking the place of, and saving possibly two or 
three coats of the more costly varnish. 

STAINS 

Stains are often used to color the wood before var- 
nishing, though their use is not recommended, as stained 
wood always looks cheap, while there is nothing more 
beautiful for ornamental as well as practical purposes, 



than the natural color and fine grain of some beautiful 
wood. 

Both water and oil stains are in common u.se, also the 
more costly spirit stains (alcohol). Water stain is 
cheaper, but as the water raises the grain, and also soaks 
into the end grain unevenly, its use is not recommended, 
though furniture men say it is more lasting than oil or 
spirit stain. Oil stains are now made for almost all 
woods, and though costing a little more, are preferable, 
in that they act as a wood preservative, and do not raise 
the grain of the wood. 

To give mahogany or cherry a rich, "old" color, first 
stain or "age" with a solution of bicromate of potash 
(the red crystals) and water, and let thoroughly dry; 
then stain with a solution of red sanders (powdered) 
and grain alcohol. By diluting or strengthening these 
solutions, an appearance of age and richness can be 
given to mahogany, which is most beautiful, since 
the fine appearance of the wood is added to by bring- 
ing out the grain. 

Care must be taken in using the red sanders stain, 
that it is not so strong and red as to give a "bloody" 
appearance. A very weak solution of the red sanders 
and alcohol is all that is necessary, over the potash, to 
give a rich color without Ijeing red. 

To Stain Oak 

The colored wood fillers, used chiefly on oak, because 
of its open grain, give antique and Flemish oak, but if 
special colors are desired, the Bridgeport oil stains are 



114 



CABINET :\[AKING 



recommended, and are to be applied before filling. 
Their "golden oak" stain, an oil stain, is to be applied 
with a brush, freely, let dry for only 4 or 6 minutes, then 
the stain is to be carefully rubbed off the lights or rays, 
with a soft cloth, leaving a darker background which is 
to be filled with golden oak or antique filler. If a spe- 
cially nice job is desired, each light or ray may be sand- 
papered in turn, with No. or No. 00 sandpaper, to 
remove the stain entirely (the stain does not soak into 
the lights), leaving the lights bright and prominent. 

Another method of using the golden oak stain is to 
apply freely, let dry (do not rub off), apply filler, let 
dry only a few minutes, and in rubbing off the filler, the 
sharp silica crystals rub the stain off the lights, leaving 
them white. 

VARNISH 

Shellac varnish is a solution of shell-lac or lac, and 
alcohol, grain alcohol preferably. The securing of the 
lac makes an interesting story. 

In South America and Africa, the Ijark and branches of 
certain species of tree are selected by a little insect as 
the proper place in which to lay her eggs. The insect 
punctures the green bark of the twigs, and deposits 
her eggs in the small hole made, also leaving a soft 
liiiuid on them to cover and protect them. The punc- 
turing of the bark allows the sap to flow from the tree. 
This sap and the liquid left by the insect combine, and 
soon cover the smaller twigs and branches, very much as 
the limbs of trees are covered with the frozen water in 
winter. Beds of lac, mixed with leaves and small 



twigs, are often found under these trees, or even by 
themselves, left by the decayed trees. 

This combination of sap and fluid is the crude lac. 
To purify it somewhat it is held over a fii-e, the sticky 
sap and fluid, in which are the insects' eggs, and often 
the bodies of insects themselves, running down on stones 
placed to receive it. It is rolled into sticks while soft, 
making the crude stick lac, or placed between stones 
and pressed flat into shells, making the crude shell-lac. 
This is sent to New York or to various European cities, 
to be purified and bleached white, making white shellac, 
or left unbleached, and called orange shellac. In puri- 
fying it, a beautiful red coloring matter is obtained from 
the bodies of the insects, and the fluid left by them, 
which closely resembles cochineal, the costly dyeing 
matter. This red coloring matter is worth so much, 
that the price obtained for it alone pays for the collect- 
ing, transportation and bleaching of the lac. 

Shellac varnish must be brushed on quickly, since the 
alcohol evaporates rapidly. It must be diluted with 
alcohol until it flows very freely. Pure grain alcohol 
shellac should dry in 10 or 12 hours, but it is better 
to let each coat dry 24 hours. Sandpaper with No. 00 
sandpaper, slightly moistened on the paper side to 
make it silky soft, between each coat. The sandpaper 
must be held in your soft hand, never on a block to sand- 
paper varnish. 

White shellac varnish is much used as a '' prime " for 
copal varnish, two coats being used, and sandpapered 
very smooth between coats and before using the copal. 



CABINET MAKING 



115 



Pure white shellac varnish is also much used to "hold 
the color" of light colored woods, as white maple, cherry, 
and sycamore, before using copal varnish. Two coats 
applied to these woods will retain the fresh, delicate 
tint of the natural wood, which would be distinctly 
"yellowed" if copal was used throughout for every 
coat. 

iShellac varnish will not stand moisture, so it is seldom 
used to finish wood entirely, though it makes a splendid, 
hard surface — much harder than copal. When used 
alone coat from four (4) to six (6) times, until the grain of 
the wood is well filled, sandpapering with slightly softened 
sandpaper between each coat (do not sandpaper the last 
coat), then rub down with pumice and water or pumice 
and oil, as described under Rubbing Down. 

Shellac varnish is used on floors, stairways and places 
requiring a very hard surface. It cannot be used out- 
side, as it softens under moisture. It is a most con- 
venient varnish for "c[uick finishing." Besides the 
use of shellac as a A-arnish to preserve and beautify 
wood, it is much used in the arts and manufactured 
articles. 

Shellac varnish must be "agitated" or stirred up 
every day, or the parts separate, and if left but a short 
time in this condition cannot again be mixed to make 
good varnish. 

Copal Varnish' 

Copal varnish is a compound of copal gum, boiled 
linseed oil, and turpentine. The copal gum is either 
fossilized gum from ancient buried trees, or the newer 



gum or resin, which flows from incisions made in certain 
trees in the tropics, chiefly in Africa. The gum comes 
to the factories in the original packages, in sacks of 
jute or teak casks, and is emptied on long tables and 
sorted, the experienced sorter judging at a glance as to 
the clearness, hardness or purity of the lump of gum. 

The linseed oil is pressed from flaxseed, and cannot 
be used in its crude state, but must be boiled, usually 
in huge kettles holding sometimes 500 gallons. It is 
skimmed, tested and pumped into reservoirs, and left 
from one to six months to settle, brighten and work 
itself up to a proper degree of clearness and purity. 

The turpentine is obtained by distilling the pitch of 
the long leaf pine tree, which grows chiefly in North 
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. This pitch is 
gathered from "boxes," which are small recesses or 
pans chopped into the pine tree, near the ground. To 
make the pitch flow faster, the tree is partly girdled, 
cut into with an ax or hatchet to expose the inner bark, 
from which the pitch flows. Each year the tree is scarred 
or partly girdled higher up, and on another side, to 
obtain more pitch, but this wounding of the tree soon 
kills them. 

The pitch is placed in a large copper vessel or still, 
and heated, the hot vapor from the heating passing out 
through a long, closed spout to the worm of the still; 
this worm is simply a coiled pipe in which the hot 
vapor is condensed into a liquid, which is the turpen- 
tine. The resin flows out from the bottom of the still. 

The copal gum, the boiled linseed oil and the turpen- 



116 



CABINET MAKING 



tine are boiled together to make the varnish, great care 
being taken when the turpentine is poured into the 
melted gum and oil, as the fumes or gas released from 
the turpentine are very combustible. After boiling it 
is strained several times, pumped into tanks and kept 
from one to twelve months to ripen, some of the finest 
varnishes requiring even a longer time. Experts are 
employed, who spread the liquid varnish on surfaces, 
so as to judge of its value, of the flowing qualities, the 
thickness, the clearness, and the drying qualities. Var- 
nishes which are not properly made or have not ripened 
properly, may be classed as "specky," "crawling," 
"sweating," "blotching," or the "peeling" and "crack- 
ing" kinds, and the more usual "blistering" kinds. 

Varnish will usually behave properly and work well 
if used in a dry, warm, well-ventilated room, which is 
clean and free from dust. 

Copal varnish, containing as it does a gi-eat percen- 
tage of boiled oil, .should stand any climate and any 
amount of moisture. The fine carriage varnishes, 
which are exposed to all kinds of weather, are costly, 
from $2.00 to $6.00 or more a gallon, and each coat 
requires from two or three days to even a week in 
^vhich to dry. The cheaper furniture varnishes cost 
only from $1.50 to $3.00 a gallon, and a coat will dry 
in from 36 to 48 hours; some much more quickly. 

After the wood has been filled, or stained, or aged, oi' 
l)rnned with the shellac varnish (these processes may 
be left out), the wood is ready for copal, though copal 
may be used alone. 



The varnish is to be thin enough to flow very easily 
and smoothly. Varnish manufacturers claim that 
warming the varnish slightly is a better way to thin 
it than to put raw turpentine into it, as is generally 
done, as the turpentine destroys the smoothness and 
gloss of the varnish. 

To Flow Copal 

A heavy, thick coat is to be flowed on quickly, with 
a soft brush, dipped deeply into the varnish (a Fitch 
brush, 2 ins. wide is good), the brush is to be wiped out 
immediately, and the extra varnish picked up by it, 
again wiped out and the varnish picked up, until all 
the extra varnish is back in the cup, leaving only a 
thin, perfectly smooth surface of varnish, instead of the 
stringy, unequal coat, which would result if the brush 
were but partly filled with varnish, not enough to cover 
the whole surface. 

This coat must dry from 24 to 48 hours; it must feel 
dry, not sticky (try forcing the finger nail gently into 
it). It is now sandpapered with No. 00 sandpaper, 
slightly moistened on the paper side to make it soft 
(the sandpaper must always be held in your hand, 
against the soft palm; never on a block of wood, to 
sandpaper varnish). If the ^■arnish is perfectly dry it 
will come off on the sandpaper as a white powder; if 
not dry, it will come off in little black or dark spots, 
and should be put back on the shelf until thoroughly 
dry. After sandpapering, wipe or brush off carefully, 
to remove all dust (it is a good plan, when possible, to 
let the fresh sandpapered surface dry several hours). 



CABINET :\IAKINCx 



117 



Apply the second coat, the third and the fourth, and 
more, if necessar\', in tiie same way, sandpapering 
between each coat, until the grain of the wood is thor- 
oughly filled, and the varnish shows a glossy, smooth 
surface, allowing, if possible, a longer time to elapse 
after each of the latter coats, as these coats, by soften- 
ing the under coats, require a longer time to dry. Do 
not sandpaper the last coat. 

Rubbing Down with Pumice Stone 

Varnish, no matter how carefully it is applied, in 
drying leaves little raised spots, some parts of the wood 
seeming to take in more than others, leaving pits. 
Sandpapering between each coat removes most of these 
raised places, and levels off the raised places even with 
the pits. Then, too, dust settles in the soft coats, 
leaving sharp points. All these inequalities of surface 
may be removed, and the surface made a perfect plane, 
ready for polishing, by cutting off the high places with 
powdered pumice stone, after the last coat has had 
time to dry thoroughly. In very fine work — piano fin- 
ishing — the third or fourth coat is rubbed perfectly 
smooth with pumice, and then another heavy coat, 
or even a second of varnish is applied, which is again 
rubbed down, making a much smoother and more perfect 
plane on which to polish. The necessity of a true sur- 
face is shown in the curious effects produced by a crooked 
window pane, in distorting the people, hoases, and street- 
cars seen through it. Fine mirrors, of thicker glass, 
are first rolled out (as are window panes) , rubbed down 



perfectly true and smooth, then polisheil, then sil- 
vered, so that the true, perfect surface will reflect a 
perfect image. If a high polish, or even a dead finish, 
is desired on wood work, the same care and pains must 
be taken to remove all the imperfections in the surface 
of the varnish, even the ver}^ little pits, for when the 
rest of the surface is polished, these same little pits or 
spots seem to be magnified to twice or three times their 
natural size. 

Pumice stone is supposed to be lava, the porous, 
spongelike melted rock, thrown from volcanoes. These 
lumjDS of stone were used by our great-grandmothers 
to whiten and clean the great stone hearths at the big 
open fire-places. 

The pumice is carefully ground very fine for rubbing 
down varnish — we buy it as extra fine powdered pumice 
stone at 2c. a pound. 

Pumice cuts faster and cleaner if used with water, 
but it is often used with oil, when it cuts very smoothly 
but more slowly. 

Place the pumice in a saucer or other earthen vessel, 
and pour on enough water to make of the mixture a 
soft, thin paste. Felt is used to hold the pumice while 
rubbing; felt cloth, thick and soft, is much better than 
the thick board felt, which fills up with the pumice and 
water and soon becomes almost as hard as a brick, while 
the thick felt cloth can be kept pliable and soft. A 
block of wood or cork is best to use at first under the 
felt, as the true surface of the block helps to cut off the 
high places in the varnish. As soon as the surface is 



lis 



CABINET MAKING 



somewhat smooth, the felt may be held in the I)are 
hand, against the soft pahn, the pumice seeming to cut 
better and faster if against an elastic or soft cushion. 
Examine the "rubber" of felt often, and scrape off 
the varnish which is cut off and accumulates in spots, 
which are soft, and likel}^ to stick to the rubbed 
surface. 

Examine the rubbed surface frequently, to see how 
the pumice is cutting. The pumice must be removed 
to see the varnish, but do not remove all; your finger, 
rubbed across the surface at intervals, will remove 
enough pumice to expose the varnish, or a piece of 
chamois skin is even better, as it wipes up the watery 
pumice perfectly dry. 

Patching 

In rubbing down varnish, even experienced rubbers 
"rub through" — that is, rub off, or cut off, all the 
varnish — even 5 or 6 coats — down to the bare wood, 
which soaks up the water and white pumice, leaving, 
when dry, an ugly white patch in the surface of the other- 
wise beautiful, smooth varnish. To patch this requires 
the utmost skill, as even with the greatest care the 
patch will show if the light is reflected across it. 

First, sandpaper the bare spot gently, very gently, 
so as not to make a hole, to remove the raised grain of 
the wood caused by the water. Use No. 00 or even 
finer paper, and use it dry (not wet on the back). 

Second, a drop of clear oil on natural wood (not stained 
or filled) rubbed on quickly and cjuickly rubbed off or 



wiped off, with a clean cloth, will usually make the wood 
look like the rest of the varnished surface (copal is 
almost always a little yellow). If the wood has been 
stained or filled applj' a little of either one with a soft 
cloth after oiling. 

Third, varnish with thin varnish, taking care not to 
leave a little ridge of varnish around the edge of the new 
coat, and varnish some distance beyond the bare wood, 
all around the spot upon the varnished surface, as the 
varnish near the bare place is very thin. Let dry 24 
or 48 hours. Apply a second coat, varni.shing over and 
quite beyond the edge of the first coat, and let dry 
(Fig. 226). 




Fig. 220 

Do not sandpaper between coats, for fear of scratch- 
ing, with the coarse sand, the rubbed varnish near the 
patch. 

A patch might be rubbed on two coats, with great 
care, but it is safer to give three coats before rubbing 
again. Apply a tliird coat, taking care not to leave a 
ridge at the edge of any coat, varnishing quite beyond 
the varnish of the second coat. We have covered 



CABINET MAKING 



119 



the wood with three coats, and the thin varnish around 
it with one or two coats, and are ready to rub again. 

Rub with pumice and water, gently, very much 
water and very httle pumice, taking special care to rub 
around the slightly ridged edges of each patched coat 
of varnish. 

Patch copal varnish with copal varnish. Some workers 
believe in using shellac varnish with which to patch, as 
it dries more quickly. The two varnishes, copal and 
shellac, will not mix, one being an oil varnish and the 
other a spirit varnish, so the patch always shows badly 
if shellac is used. 

Fortunately, it is nearly always sharp corners, and 
narrow surfaces, and little rounded edges that are 
rubbed through, and these patch much more easily 
than flat surfaces. 

Polishing 

The pumice stone, to cut away the surface of the 
varnish, must have some grit or cutting edge, which of 
course leaves scratches. These scratches must be re- 
moved by again rubbing with a finer stone, called rotten 
stone. The scratches left by the rotten stone might 
be removed by using a still finer stone or polishing 
material called rouge, used in polishing glass, but rotten 
stone is fine enough to give a beautiful polish to varnish, 
so a finer polishing material is seldom used. 

Rotten stone is a soft, fine stone used in lumps, some- 
times, to polish metallic surfaces, but powdered and used 
with oil or water to polish varnish. We buy it as finest 
powdered rotten stone, and it costs 4c. a pound. It is 



used with oil; linseed oil is the best, though a clear, 
smooth lubricating oil is good. The oil may be mixed 
with the rotten stone, and a piece of very soft cloth or 
fine cotton, held in the hand, used to rub it on, or a 
bunch of cotton or clean waste may be saturated with 
the oil, placed within a piece of soft cheese cloth, or 
other fine cloth, and this dipped into the dry powder 
(rotten stone). 

It is said that one's soft hand is a better polisher than 
any other thing. Watch the polishers in any large 
piano wareroom or furniture wareroom, who go around 
all day with a piece of chamois skin on which to wipe 
their hands, and a little oil and rotten stone, mixed, for 
convenient carrying. A small quantity of the mixture 
is put on the piano or table and rubbed with the bare 
hand. 

Waxing 

ilany years ago almost all furniture and interior 
wood work and floors were waxed. Then the bright 
varnish, which kept the wood cleaner and its natural 
color, by filling the pores and grains of the wood entirely, 
was manufactured and soon came into general use. Of 
late years waxed furniture has again become the style. 

Our grandfathers used beeswax and other wax, cut 
with turpentine. Now a floor and furniture wax is 
manufactured, prepared ready to apply. How it is 
made is a secret of the manufacturers, but it probably 
contains boiled turpentine or oil, as it dries hard in 24 
hours and will polish up brightly. 

First — If stain is desired, stain with oil stain any color. 



120 



CABINET MAKING 



Second — The manufacturers of the wax polish insist 
that the wood must be prepared for wax quite as care- 
fully as for varnish — that a better polished surface of 
wax is secured by carefully filling the wood with a good 
wood filler, two coats, rubbed off carefully and polished 
smooth. 

Apply the wax with a soft cloth, as it comes as a thick 
paste, rubbing on only as much as the wood will take. 
This should dry 5 or 10 minutes, then be rubbed and 
polished with a soft cloth, and let dry 24 hours. 

The second coat is rubbed on like the first. Let dry 
10 or 15 minutes, then polish with a soft cloth. After 
drj'ing 24 hours the waxetl surface should not show 
finger marks. 

More than two coats are hardly necessary at one time. 
Not being so durable as varnish, it is just as well to use 
the article waxed, until it needs another coat, then 
refinish with a new coat. 

Cracking and Blistering 

If (he \arnish cracks while drying or rubbing, scrape 
it off with a very sharp chisel, held straight up in the 
hand, sandpaper and revarnish. 

If cracks appear after some months or years of use, a 
good, soft oil, rubbed over the varnish, will help to close 
the cracks temporarily, by giving back to the varnish 
new life, which has either evaporated or been dried out 
by the heat of the room. But nothing can restore the 
perfect surface;; the cracks will appear as soon as the oil 
has dried out. New coats of varnish do not fill uj) 



cracks — the cracks showing through the new coats — so 
there is no remedy but to scrape off the varnish and 
apply a better article. 

If the varnish blisters, scrape it off immediately, and 
apply another kind, or change the temperature of the 
room, when there may be no more trouble. But it is 
a fact that one article will blister, and another, made of 
the same wood, varnished with the same varnish, at the 
same time, in the same room, will not blister — why, no 
one knows. 

It is better to pay for a good grade of varnish, which 
is higher priced just because it is more carefully made, 
strained and allowed to settle and work itself out for a 
longer time than the cheaper grades. 

A good plan for beginners is to prepare small, smooth 
pieces of wood, and practice "flowing" (coating) the 
varnish, rubbing down, patching, and polishing. 

Waxing is such a simple process, that merely following 
the directions given will surely give good results. 

GLOVE BOX 
(Lined with Silk) 

Stock Bill 

2 P—12^".x3".xA"— sides. 

4 P — l".x3"xy — blocks to glue on sides. 

2 P— 2V'x3"xt\"— ends. 

2 P — l3l"xB"x^-g" — top and bottom. 

Note (1). — Top is planed slightly smaller after gluing on. 
Note (2). — The inside dimensions of this liox may be changed 
to the following sizes, all of which have been made, and look well: 



CABINET .MAKING 



121 



GLDVE BOX. 



2/isi4ntX /8f3 -S.£./e. 



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cuts /'Ae s/i-t,eCtiA.i' ui ta makt. a, cirdi^ii^a 



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ir/ n/Aii^ /'he's CLi/i^£ ntLtt-s an sayy^Alis . 
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122 



CABINET MAKING 



12"x8"x3J" deep inside. 
18"x8"x3y' " 
or square — 6"x6"x3" " " 

Directions 

Warm the wood in oven, and glue the j in. thick 
blocks on the sides. Groove the sides and ends, 
and glue the tongues in the end pieces, pounding 
them in gently with the hammer. Let dry 2 
hours. 

Fit the ends into the grooves in the sides, marking 
each fitted corner, No. 1, No. 1, or No. 2, No. 2, 
etc., clamp up dry in hand screws (without glue) 
and show your instructor, and receive his per- 
mission to glue sides and ends together. 

Warm the wood in the oven, glue up with hot glue — 
clamping with hand screws — square your box 
with try-square, and let dry 2 hours. 

Joint both the top and bottom edges of your box, 
and show your instructor. 

IMark off the outside round corners of your box 
with dividers, and saw at band saw or with back 
saw, sawing outside the lines. 

Plane off the faces of the sides and ends, first, per- 
fectly true and smooth, then plane the round 
corners, planing across the grain, but with the 
plane held at 45° to the grain. 

Show to your instructor before sandpajiering, then 
sandpaper with No. h or No. I sandpaper, held 
with vour fingers on a block about 4 ins.x 2A ins. 



5. Place the box first on the top piece, then on the 

bottom piece, marking the outside and inside 
shapes on both pieces. Mark out the projecting 
molding at corners, and saw at band saw or 
with back saw. 
Plane edges of top antl bottom pieces to required 
shape, leaving most of the molding on the top 
to be planed after it is glued on. Set small 
brads in inside face of top and bottom, on lines 
marked out, to hold these pieces in position while 
gluing. 

6. Saw out the inside corners of box on scroll saw, or 

chisel them out with the pattern maker's gouges, 
sandpapering the corners with the paper held 
on a round stick (a J in. dowel). 

7. Warm the top and bottom in oven, and glue on 

with hot glue, clamping with hand screws. Let 
dry 2 hours. 

8. Cut glue from corners with sharp chisel, cutting 

across the grain, always, never with the grain. 

Plane the outside of the Ijottom and top perfectly 
true and smooth, finishing the top molding 
back I in. from edge. 

Spoke-shave the corners until all are matched, and 
plane the projecting moldings, until all pro- 
jections are equal. 

Show to your instructor before sandpapering, then 
sandpaper the moldings with folded pai)er held 
in your hand. Hold the sandpaper on a sharp, 
square block to clean out and smooth the corners. 



CABINET :\rAKING 



123 



9. Stain or fill with the desired color of stain or filler, 
or if natural, varnish or wax, following the 
directions for Finishing. 

10. Saw open f in. down from the top, and plane the 

edges carefully, until the cover fits the box per- 
fectly. Sandpaper the edges gently with No. 
sandpaper, then varnish the edges with one coat 
only of thin shellac varnish, or if wax is used, 
wax the edges. 

11. Screw on the hinges 2 ins. from either end, and the 

clasp in the center. 

Lining with Silk 

V2. Cut 1 in. wide ribbon hinges 4 ins. long, and glue on 
over the hinges on inside of box. 

13. Cut white paper the exact width of the depth of 

box, and 2 ins. longer than the distance around 
the inside; also paper the exact width of the 
depth of the cover (J in.) and 2 ins. longer than 
the distance around the inside; also paper the 
exact length and width of top and bottom inside. 

14. Cut the silk 1 in. wider than the long strips, fold one 

end of the silk in J in. , lay paper on the fold and 
on the silk, glue the paper slightly (all but the 
folded silk end) and fold the silk tightly over 
the paper. Insert the frayed end into the folded 
end, and the piece is ready to glue in the box. 
Prepare the other pieces, using one or two layers 
of cotton wadding to soften the top and bottom 
pieces, under the silk, also sachet powder next 



the paper and under the cotton, so that it will 
not show through the bottom piece of silk. 
15. When the pieces of silk are all prepared, glue around 
the edges of the inside of the box — J in. only back 
from edges — excepting over the ribbon hinges, 
where more glue may be used. By gluing the 
folded end of the strips of silk to the front side 
of the box the fold does not show. 
Four daubs of glue near the corners are sufficient 
to hold in the top and bottom; the less glue, 
the less contracting of the paper. 

LETTER BOX 

1. Glue tongues or splines into ends, pounding them 

in gently with hammer. Let dry 2 hours. 

2. Plane inside face of each piece, including the 

bottom, perfectly smooth and true. 

3. Fit the ends into the grooves in the sides, number- 

ing each fitted corner No. 1, No. 1, or No. 2, No. 
2 — clamp up dry in hand screws (without glue). 
Show to your instructor and receive his permis- 
sion to glue sides and ends together. 

4. Warm your wood in oven, glue up with hot glue, 

clamping with hand screws, square your box 
with try-square, and let dry 2 hours. 

5. Joint both the top and bottom edges of your box, 

and show to your instructor. Mark off the 
round corners with the dividers, and saw at band 
saw or with back saw, keeping outside the line. 
Plane off the faces of the sides and ends, first, per- 



124 



CABINET MAKING 



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CABINET MAKING 



125 



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Stock Bill. 
SP-ll|"x<4:x^"- Sides. 
2, p .4i;'x4-"x5- Emds. 

t P =1S' X 5">^^"- Bottom. 

3P =-4-g"x g,"x J£-Partitions- 



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of corner. 



detail drawing 




W.K.HOwELNSTeiN- 



Fig. 229 



126 



CABINET MAKING 



fectly true and smooth, then round the corners, 
planing across the grain, with the plane held at 
45° to the grain. Show to your instructor before 
sandpapering, then sandpaper with No. i or No. 
1 sandpaper, held with your fingers on a sand- 
]3aper block about 4 ins. long and 2^ ins. wide. 

Place the box on the bottom piece, and mark off 
the outside edge and inside of box on the bottom. 
]\Iark off the projecting molding at corners, 
and saw at the band saw or with back saw. 
Plane off edges of bottom to required shape, set 
small brads in bottom piece on the inside line 
of box, to hold bottom in position while gluing. 
Warm bottom piece only, and glue on with hot 
glue, clamping with hand screws. Let dry 2 hours. 

Cut glue from corners with a sharp chisel, cutting 
across the grain always (never with the grain). 
Plane the lower side of the bottom perfectly true 
and smooth, and sandi)aper. Sandpaper the 
molding with folded paper held in your hand. 
Hold the sandpaper on a sharp, square block, to 
clean out and smooth corner above molding. 

Cut the grooves for the partitions with a V carving 
tool, and plane and fit the partitions. 

Stain or fill with the desired color of stain or filler, 
following the directions for Finishing. 

OCTAGONAL TABORET 

(_!lue up top of taboret and let diy for several daj's, 
or while making the base. 



Plane the eight side pieces to dimensions, bevel the 
edges, mark out shape with the pattern, nail 
four pieces together to saw out shape — nailing, 
of course, through the parts to be thrown away. 
Groove the edges, and prepare at least 3 narrow 
tongues, for each joint; not to strengthen the 
joint, but to prevent the pieces sliding past each 
other while gluing. 



^^^^J>^^^S^^^^^" 




CABINET MAKING 



127 




Octaqowal Ta-Voret 



^ 






Section o\ lob 

skou/iag brojecUoa 



J3rt^t^ L S. A /fi''^ 




128 



CABINET JIAKING 



3. Glue on blocks, when necessary, for the hand 

screws, as shown (Fig. 230), rubbing on the 
blocks with hot glue. Let dry 2 or 3 hours. 
Prepare soft pin<^ blocks to fit in the curved shapes 
of the sides, as shown, for hand screws; also 
soft pine sticks for hand screws, to preserve the 
corners on narrow legs, as shown. 

4. Warm the sides in oven, and glue up in pairs — 

two and two — wipe oif glue on in.side with hot, 
wet cloth, and let dry 2 hours. Glue up the 
pairs, wipe off glue, and let dry 2 hours. 

5. Mallet and chisel off the glue blocks, until within 

y-g- in. of sides, then plane all faces perfectly true 
and smooth. 
it. .loint off top edge; glue on 4 glue block.s — 3 ins. x 
lA- ins. X I in. — to take screws to screw on top. 
Bore a hole in each lilock to receive screws. 

7. Plane the top perfectly true and smooth, bevel 

the edges, sandpaper with No. J or No. 1 paper, 
hold top in position with hand screws, and screw 
it on with flat-head screws. Never glue on the 
tops — table tops are screwed on, not glued. 

8. Follow directions for Finishing. 

HAND MIRROR 

1. i\Iark out opening for glass, and saw at scroll saw, 

or with little hand saw. 

2. With a gauge having a long, sharp point, gauge a 



deep line half way down the thickness of the 
material, and also j'S in. back from edge of 
opening, and chisel out the square "rabbet" for 
mirror. 

3. Mark out outside of frame and handle, making the 

handle long or short as desired, and saw at band 
saw. File rough edges with fine wood file, 
taking special care to file out any imperfect 
curves in outline. ' 

4. Spoke-shave the face of frame to shape shown in 

drawing — the arc of a circle, with sharp corners 
at edges. 

With a V carving tool, V down the center line of 
handle, making a much shallower V around the 
laj) over at both ends. With the fiat gouge, 
round over the handle to shape shown in section 
— the arc of a circle, with sharp corners at edges. 

Shape both .sides of handle, but only the upper 
face of frame. 

Show to your instructor before sandpapering (do 
not sandpaper until carving is completed), then 
sandpaper with No. J or No. 1 sandpaper. 

5. Mark out the thin back of frame, saw at band saw, 

file or spoke-shave the edge, rounding it over 
very slightly. Plane the inside surface per- 
fectly true, to make a good glue joint with frame. 
G. Finishing. Shellac varnish or wax will be better 
to finish with than copal. Apply wax or shellac 
varnish as directed under Finishing, taking 



CABINET MAKING 



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Fig. 232 



t-4 

41 



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y Fig. 233 







130 



CABINET MAKING 




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ii^. ,;^ 



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Fis. 235 



CABINET MAKING 



131 




Fig. 236 




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Fig. 237 



132 



CABINET MAKING 



care not to varnish or wax the inside of the thin 
back board, or the frame next the rabbet, as 
the glue will not hold if the grain of the wood 
is filled with wax or varnish. 
Rub down and polish the whole frame and handle, 
then fasten and glue in the mirror by using little 
ti'iangular glue blocks (Fig. 238). Plane or 




chisel these off flush with the surface, lay one or 
two thicknesses of cotton wadding on back side 
of mirror, and glue the thin wood back in place. 

The front of the frame and the back of the back 
will not be injured by the hand screws if smooth, 
soft pine boards are laid against each face. 

Cut glue out of corners with sharp chisel, sandpaper 
gently, and refinish the back. 

The finishing could not be done with the mirror 
in place, as any rubbing of the mirror will dull 
the polish. 

Waxing would not hurt the mirror, but the wood- 
filler used to prepare the wood for the wax 



would scratch the mirror, so it is better to finish 
the front and edges of the frame and the handle 
before fastening the mirror in place. 

OCTAGONAL TABORET 

To lay out an octagon, take half the diagonal of the 
square and mark it off on the sides of the square. 

Bevel the edges of the sides before sawing out at band 
saw, then nail three or four sides together and saw, then 
file edges true and smooth (Fig. 239). 

Glue on blocks at top end of sides to take hand screws, 
and prepare .soft pine blocks, shaped to curves of sides, 
to prevent hand screws from marring edges, while gluing 
up (Fig. 240). 

Glue up sides in pairs, two and two, and let dry 2 
hours, removing glue from inside corners, immediately, 
with cloth wrung out of hot water. When dry, glue up 
pairs, removing the glue carefully. 

Glue on 4 blocks, on opposite sides, flush with top 
edge — blocks to be about 3 ins. xlh ins. x 1 in. — to hold 
screws, with which the top is screwed on. 

Plane the top smooth and true, bevel the edges (Fig. 
241), and sandpaper, before screwing down (the top 
must be held in position, while screwing, by four or more 
hand screws). 

Stain or fill the de-sired color, and wax or varnish, 
following directions under Finishing. 



CABINET MAKING 



133 



Fig. 239 




^5:^:^ 




'nioo 



Fig. 241 



134 



CABINET MAKING 



SQUARE TABORET 

By using pattern for leg (Fig. 242) on board 22 ins. x 
5^ ins. X 2 in., much material may be saved. Nail three 
or four pieces together, saw out .shapes on band saw, 
and file edges true and smooth. 



N ZZ ". 




\^.^ \ 



Fig. 242 

With large iron scjuare lay out on bench top lightly, 
with soft lead pencil, the center line a, 1, 17 ins. long, the 



-4 



Fig. 243 

true length of the side. Lay off the width of the bottom 
of the side 15 ins., and the width of the top of the side 
10 ins. (Fig. 243). 

Plane and fit the joint at cc, of the two pieces of the 
side, and glue together. Saw the top edge of the side 




Fig. 244 



CABINET MAKING 



135 



straight. Plane both faces of the sides smooth, and glue 
on inside of the top edge a glue block 6 ins. x 2 ins. x 
1 in., both to strengthen the side at the joint, and to 
serve to hold the screws with which the top is screwed 
on (table and taboret tops are screwed on, not glued). 

Two of the sides of the taboret will be twice the 
thickness of the material narrower than the other two 
(Fig. 244). 

Glue sides together with hot glue, using iron clamp 
and hand screws, with soft pine l>locks shaped to the 
curves of the legs, so as not to mar the edges. 

Bevel the under side of the top and screw it on, hold- 
ing it in place with hand screws while screwing it down. 

Stain or fill with the desired color of stain and filler, 
and wax or varnish, following directions under Finish- 
ing. 

SMALL TABLE 
(With Shaped Legs— Fig. 245) 

The stock for the legs must be 14 ins. x 2 ins. x 2 ins., 
and with a straight shoulder for rail of 2 ins., and the 
curve to begin f in. back from the shoulder (Fig. 246, a). 

With these dimensions given, each boy is to make a 
pattern, full size, of the leg, subject to the criticism of 
his instructor. 

The legs may be left straight from the knee up, to 
give a good hold to the clamps (Fig. 246, b). 

A better way is to saw out the leg completely and 
shape and smooth it with the spoke-shave, with the 
exception of rounding over the outside corner. 

Saw out and shape the rails also, and glue two dowels 




136 



CABINET MAKING 



\S 



?1 







I ' ia 

Fig. 246 
into ends of each rail, and when ready to clamp up, saw 
a block at the band saw to fit the knee, and fasten on 
with a hand screw (Fig. 247). _ 

The rail should be doweled in so as to remain a little 
above the curve of the leg, that the rail may be planed 
off flush with the leg, after gluing. By glumg up the 
legs in pairs, this planing may be easily done on two 
rails, the other two requiring more care, as the table 
is then all clamped together. 

The molding on the top is a regular table top mold- 
ing, simple and beautiful, though in this case it is turned 

over. . .,.„ 

The regular table top molding is shown m l^ig. -48, 

but to complete the curve begun by the leg, the whole 

top is turned over. . 

Screw down the top with two wood screws in each rail 

Fig. 249). 




CABINET MAKING 



137 



HAT FRAME 

(Mirror 8 ins. x 24 ins.) 

Note. — Mirror may be Sins, x 28 ins. or 8in.s. x36in3., in the 
use of which one or two more hat hoolcs may be fastened to the 
lower side of the frame. 

Oxidized, nickeled or brass hat hooks. 
If mirror is 8 ins. x 24 ins. , the " opening " of the frame 
is 7i ins. x 23j ins., allowing f in. of glass covered all 




i^ 




Fig. 250 

around in rabbet (the rabbet is the part cut from the 
inside edge of the frame, to take the mirror — 2 in.x § in.). 
If the top and bottom pieces of the frame extend f in. 
beyond the end pieces, the stock bill reads: 

2 P — 31|"x3i"xJ" — top and bottom pieces. 
2 P— 7J"x3J"xJ"— ends. 
1 P — 92"x2.5J"xJ" or |" — glass back. 
- P — ll"xl"x{" — triangular blocks to glue around 
mirror (pine). 



C' f^;- 



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"O))*" 



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U -j^l- , 

Fig. 251 
To construct — Plane inside and outside edges of 
pieces perfectly square and smooth. 

Joint the ends of the end pieces square. Mark off 
the position of the end pieces on the top and bottom 
pieces of the frame. 



138 



CABINET MAKING 



Number the corners of the frame, 1,1; 2, 2, etc. 

Lay out dowel hole centers (Fig. 252), drive small 
wire brads into center marks, and cut off brads so that 
they will project jV in. 




Push the ends with the projecting points against the 
sides exactly in the proper place. Pull out the brads, 
and bore holes f in. deep, with | in. or j\ in. bit. 

Glue the dowels into the end pieces, putting the glue 
into the hole which is to receive the dowel with a round 
stick somewhat smaller in diameter than the hole. 
Never dip the dowel in the glue. Dowels should be 
partly sharpened or pointed with the dowel pointer, to 
prevent the glue being pushed ahead of the dowel by 
the square end. 

Fit the end pieces into the sides — dry, without glue — 
clamping up the frame with the iron clamps — dry — to 



see that all the joints are perfect. The dowels should 
project J in. less than the hole is deep. 

71 





Fig. 254 

Cutting the rabbet — If the rabbet for the glass is to 
be made by hand, gauge tleeply along the two edges of 
the rabbet (Fig. 253), cut out the two ends of the rabbet 
with the chisel (Fig. 254), and plane the remaining 
part with the rabbet plane (Fig. 255), a narrow wood 




CABINET ]»IAKING 



139 



plane, witli the bit the full width of the plane. Plane 

the rabbet in the two end pieces, warm the parts of the 

frame in the warming oven, and glue the frame together, 

using plenty of glue on the end joints. 

Plane the face and back sides of the frame perfectly 

true and smooth, and round the outside and inside 

corners of the top face jV in- only- 
Finish with wax or varnish, following directions under 

Finishing. 

Place the mirror in position and glue around the edges 

triangular pine blocks, about IJ ins. long, which have 

been planed on one edge to make a joint (Fig. 251). 
When dry screw down the glass back to protect the 

mirror. 

To fasten to the wall, screw to the back of the frame 

two blocks, the thickness of the back-board, and to 

these blocks screw two thin plates of brass, bought in 

any hardware store. 

The hat hooks should be perfectly plain to look well — 

round nickel-plated, or oxidized, if desired. 

Mitered Frame for Mirror, 12 ins. x i8ins. 

The frame opening will be 11 { ins. x 17^ ins., allowing 
f in. of glass covered all around in rabbet (Fig. 256). 
If the material is 3^ ins. wide, the stock bill reads: 

2 P— 24i"x3i"xJ" 

2 P— 18i"x3i"xf' 

1 P— 13i"xl9i"xJ" or I" glass back. 

Plane inside edges of pieces perfectly square and 
smooth. 




Fig. 256 

Lay out pieces, with bevel set to 45°. 

Number the pieces at the corners — 1, 1; 2, 2, etc. 

The miters may be planed in the vise, but a much 
easier way is to plane them in the bench hook, against 
a 45° block (Fig. 258). Try each one of the four corners 
of the frame with the try-square to prove the miter 
joint. 

Plane the rabbet h in. x h in. in each piece, with the 
rabbet plane. Lay out dowel hole centers in end pieces 
and drive small wire brads into centers, cutting off 
brads to project only yV in. 

Carefully mark out dowel hole centers in top and 
bottom pieces by pressing end pieces against them in 
the proper place, pull out brads and bore for dowels with 
I in. or yV in. bit. 

Glue the dowels in end pieces, putting glue into the 
hole to receive the dowel (do not glue the dowel). Saw 
off dowels 5 in. shorter than holes are deep, fit each corner 
and clamp together dry, without glue. 

Mitered frames may be clamped up in two ways: 4 
hand clamps may be used, extending clear over the 



140 



CABINET MAKING 



-B-^-T-- 




Fig. 257 





Fig. 258 



Fig. 2.59 

frame, or glue blocks may be rubbed on the outside 
edges of the mitered pieces near the corners (Fig. 259). 
These glue blocks must be quite long, that a good glue 
joint may be made, to withstand the strain of the hand 
screw, and they must be mitered at inside end to re- 
ceive the hand scre-^', and they should be glued on in 
such a position that the hand screw will force the joint 
together about midway of the miter (see dotted line). 



CABINET MAKING 



141 



Warm the pieces in the heating oven, and glue to- 
gether, using plenty of warm, thin glue on miters. 

Chisel off blocks carefullj' and plane front and back 
faces perfectly true and smooth; also square up outside 
edge. 

Finish in wax or varnish, as directed in Finishing. 

Place mirror in position, and glue in place with tri- 
angular pine blocks, one edge of which has been planed 
to make a joint. 

To fasten to wall, screw to back of frame two thin 
brass strips, or use screw eyes and picture wire. 

This frame may be used as a hat frame by the addition 
of hat hooks. 

MAGAZINE HOLDER 
(With shaped ends) 

A rack to hold three magazines, side by side, will 
require 22 ins. between end pieces — four magazines, 
29 ins. (Fig. 260). 

Stock Bill 

2 P— 17"x3"xV'— ends. 

3 P — 23i"x2|"Xj-5" — back strips. 
2 P—23i"xl|"xf5"— front strips. 
1 P—24i"x3"xA"— shelf. 

4 P — l"x|"xV' — wedges. 

The back strips are to be gained in, or let in, their 
full thickness into the back edge of the end pieces, and 
are to project J in. at either end. 

These strips are to be screwed on. 

The front strips are to be screwed on with round- 



headed screws, and are also to project j in. over end pieces 
at either end. 

The bottom shelf is 3 ins. wide and may be tenoned and 
driven through mortises in the end pieces and wedged; 
or it may be cut off the exact length — 22 ins. — between 
end pieces, and screwed on with flat-headed screws 
through the ends. 

The projecting ends and wedges are then made sep 
arately, and glued and nailed on. 

This is the usual way of making "Old Mission" fur- 
niture, with projecting tenons and wedges. 

Stain or fill the desired color, and follow directions 
under Finishing. 

To fasten to wall, screw into the back of the end pieces 
at the top two thin, flat brass plates, containing three 
holes for screws. 

Magazine Holder — Old Mission Style 
A rack to hold three magazines, side by side, will 
require 22 ins. between end pieces — 4 magazines, 29 ins. 
(Fig. 261). 

Stock Bill 
2 P— 13ix3"xJ"— ends. 
5 P — 23V'xl|"x/'/' — front and back strips. 
1 P—24V'x3"xV'— shelf. 
4 P — l"xV'x|" — wedges. 
The back strips are to be let in, or gained in, their 
full thickness into the back edge of the end pieces, and 
are to project I in. at either end. 
These strips are to be screwed on. 
The front strips are to be screwed on with round- 



142 



CABINET MAKING 




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Fig. 260 



CABINET MAKING 



143 



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144 



CABINET MAKING 



headed screws, and are also to project i in. over end pieces 
at either end. 

The bottom shelf is 3 ins. wide, and may be tenoned 
and driven through mortises in the end pieces, and 
wedged, or it may be cut off the exact length — 22 ins. — 
between end pieces, and screwed on with flat-headed 
screws through the ends. 

The projecting ends and wedges are then made 
separately, and glued and nailed on. 

This is the usual way of making "Old ^lission" fur- 
niture, with projecting ends and wedges. 

Stain or fill the desired color, and follow directions 
under FinishIiNg. 

To fasten to wall, screw into the back edge of the end 
pieces at the top two thin brass plates, having holes for 
screws. 

PLATE RACK WITH TOP SHELF 

(Fig. 262) 

Stock Bill 

2 P — 17^"x4"xJ" — end pieces. 
1 P— 36"x4"xV'— top shell'. 
1 P—34^"x2i"xJ"— lower .shelf. 
1 P— 33^"x1"xt55"— back strip. 

1 P— 33V'x2"x/ir"— back strip. 

2 P — l"x|"xj" — wedges. 

The back strips are to be gained, or let in, their full 
thickness, into the back edge of the end pieces, and are 



to project \ in. at either end. These strips are screwed 
to the end pieces, and may be glued to the shelves. 

The top shelf is doweled on. To mark off for dowel 
holes, drive two small brads in the top ends of the end 
pieces, cut off to project only yw ^^-y ^nd push into top 
shelf in proper place. Pull out brads and bore with 
y\ in. or f in. dowel bit. 

The lower shelf may be tenoned aiid driven through 
a mortise in the end pieces, and wedged, or it may be 
cut off the exact length — 32 ins. — between the end pieces, 
and screwed on with flat-headed screws through the 
end pieces. The projecting pieces and wedges are made 
separately, and glued and nailed on. 

The lower shelf is to be grooved along the front edge 
to hold plates securely. 

Stain or fill the desired color, and wax or varnish, 
following directions under Finishing. 

To fasten to wall, screw into the back of the end pieces 
at the top two thin brass plates, containing three holes 
for screws. 

Small hooks are screwed into lower slielf, from which 
teacups are suspended. 

Note. — Top shelf may be grooved also to hold both plates and 
vases. 



PLATE RACK 

A rack to hold three medium-sized plates will require 
32 ins. between end pieces (Fig. 263). 



CABINET MAKING 



145 




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146 



CABINET MAKING 



Stock Bill 

2 P — 21"x3J"x|" — end pieces. 
1 P — 35"x2"xi" — upper shelf. 

1 P—35"x2§"xJ"— lower shelf. 

2 P— 34"x2"xJ,"— back strips. 
4 P — l"x|"xj" — wedges. 

The back strips are gained in, or let in, their full 
thickness, into the back edge of the end pieces and are 
to project J in. at either end. These strips are screwed 
to the end pieces and may be screwed to the shelves 
also. 

The shelves may be tenoned and driven through mor- 
tises in end pieces, or they may be cut off the exact 
length — 32 in. — between end pieces, and screwed on with 
flat-headed screws through the end pieces. The pro- 
jecting pieces and wedges are made separately, and nailed 
on. 

Shelves are to be grooved along front edge to hold 
plates securely. 

Stain or fill the desired color, and wax or varnish, 
following directions under Finishing. 

Small hooks are screwed into the under side of lower 
shelf, from which teacups are suspended. 

To fasten to wall, screw into the back edge of end 
pieces, at the top, two thin brass plates, containing three 
holes for screws. 

PLATE RACK— OLD MISSION STYLE 

A rack to hold three medium-sized jilates will require 
32 ins. between end pieces (Fig. 264). 



Stock Bill 



2 P— 16i"x4J"xJ"— end 



pieces. 

-upper shelf. 

' — lower shelf. 



1 P— 35"x3J"xJ 

1 P — 35"x2J"xi — lower s 

2 P— 34"x2"xt>5"— back strips. 
6 P — l"xj"x|" — wedges. 

The back strips are gained in, or let in, their full 
thickness into the back edge of the end pieces and are 
to project i in. at either end. These strips are screwed 
to the end pieces and back edges of .shelves. 

The shelves may be tenonetl and driven through mor- 
tises in end pieces and wedged, or they may be cut off 
the exact length — 32 -ins. — between end pieces, and 
screwed on with flat-headed screws through the end 
piece.s. The projecting pieces and wedges are made 
separately and nailed on. 

The upper shelf is to be grooved along the back edge, 
and the lower shelf along the front edge to hold plates 
securely. 

Stain or fill the desired color, and wax or varnish, 
following directions under Finishing. 

Small hooks are screwed into the under side of shelves, 
from which teacups are suspended. 

To fasten to wall, screw into back edge of end pieces, 
at the top, two thin brass plates containing three holes 
for screws. 

Note. — Plate racks are made with narrower shelves, that the 
plates may lean forward against a small rail or stick, between the 
two end pieces. In these racks the plates lean against the wall. 



CABINET MAKING 



147 



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Fig. 263 



148 



CABINET MAKING 







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CABINET MAKING 



149 



SEWING TABLE 
(Only 28 ins. high) 

With shelf and drawer — legs screwed on, drawer opens 
from either side (Fig. 205). 

This table may be made regular table height, 30 ins., 
and used for a reading table, or may be made larger 
for a library table, with top 32 ins. x 22 ins., or 36 ins. 
X 24 ins., in which case the shelf may be 7 ins. down 
from top, and the drawer widened to 12 ins. or 14 ins. 
The legs of the larger table must be made thicker also; 
2 ins. wide by Ij ins. thick. 

The lower shelf may be cut away 2 ins. at front and 
back to admit of sitting closer to table (Fig. 2G6). 

Stock Bill 

1 P— 24"xl8"xf' — top. 

1 P—24"xl8"xi"— shelf. 

2 P — 6"xl8"x|" — partitions at eiicl of drawer. 
2 P — 8"x6"xJ" — drawer fronts. 

2 P — 17J"x6"x|" — drawer sides. 

1 P — 7|"xl6J".x/',;" — drawer bottom. 
4 P— 28i"x2x|"— legs. 

2 P — .5i"x2"xJ" — to make corner braces. 



Construction 

Glue up top of table, shelf, partitions at end of drawer, 
plane off faces, and let dry as long as possible, to shrink. 




— ^r--- '■ 



OT 



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150 



CABINET MAKING 



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Fig. 260 



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Fic. 267 ■« 



Legs 

Plane up legs to dimensions, beginning to taper, in 
width only, 8j ins. from top end, tapering to \ in. wide 
at foot. Round over the corners at top end Y^e i'^- 
(Fig. 267). 

Drawer 

]\Iake drawer fronts SjV ins. long, and 6J ins. wide, to 
allow for fitting — drawer sides also 6J ins. wide. Drawer 
sides may be grooved into fronts, or may be dovetailed 
into fronts. 

If grooved in, make deep groove in ends of drawer 
front, f in. deep (the thickness of the sides), and \ in. 
in from inside face of drawer front (Fig- 268). 

Saw away the thin tongue, leaving it only J in. long. 




Groove the drawer side \ in. deep, and \ in. wide, to 
receive the short tongue (Fig. 269). 



CABINET MAKING 



151 




Fig. 269 



Groove the fronts and sides of the drawer | in. up from 
lower edge, to receive drawer bottom, gauging and chis- 
eling out groove, or planing it with grooving ]5lane (Fig. 
270). 

Bevel off drawer bottom on under side, to make edge 
wedge-shaped, to fit groove perfectly on upper side. 



fnioo 



Fig. 270 



Dovetailing 

In making dovetailed drawers, the front of the drawer 
is finished first — laid out, sawed, and chiseled. The 
finished end of drawer front is then held down tightly 
on the drawer side, and the side marked out with a 
knife from the completed front. It would be impossible 
to make a well-fitting dovetailed joint in any other 
way. 

In hand-made dovetails, the tenons are very small or 
narrow, and the mortises wide (Fig. 271), to distinguish 
the hand-made from the machine-made dovetails, in 
which the mortises and tenons are always equal in 
width (Fig. 272). 

Gauging 

Gauge on end of drawer front the distance the drawer 
side is to lap over drawer front; in this case ^ in. With 
same set of gauge, gauge across the end of drawer sides, 
on both faces of sides. Set gauge to thickness of drawer 
sides, I in., and gauge across inside face of drawer 
front, to show depth of mortises in drawer front. 

To Lay Out Dovetails 

Locate the groove for drawer bottom, and cover this 
groove with first tail. Use your judgment in regard 
to slant or flare of tail. If too much fiare is given 
the long corners of the tails in the drawer sides break 
away (Fig. 273). Experience has shown that J in. 
flare on each side of tail is sufficient, if tail is ^ in. long 
(Fig. 274). 



152 



CABINET MAKING 





Fig. -JTI 



x^A^^SilSZ, 




Do not waste time tiguring out widths of tenons or 
tails, but after laying out first flare or slant over groove 
for drawer bottom, and its opposite on other edge of 
drawer front, divide the remaining distance into e>:|ual 
parts, for center lines for tenons; in this case, 5^ ins. 
into 4 parts. Use judgment in deciding on width of 
centers for tenons; too many tails make too much work. 

Draw center lines through the.se divisions, lay off 
xV in. on either side for narrow edge of tenons and y\ "'■ 
on either side for wide edge of tenons — the tenons are 
the triangular shaped parts of the drawer front, left 
after cutting out mortises for tails (Fig. 275). The | in. 
width for narrow edge of tenon is more than is generally 



CABINET MAKING 



153 




Fig. 27.5 



given for fine, hand-made dovetails; the usual width is 
a narrow saw kerf only, about yV "i- 

With bevel set to required angle, and a sharp knife, 
knife the mortises. With try-square and knife, knife 
the gauge lines. 

Saw, with fine tenon saw, exactly to knife lines, 
sawing kerf out of morti.ses; not out of tenons (Fig. 276). 

Chisel out mortises in ends of front to knife lines (Fig. 
277). 

Hold drawer front straight up on drawer side, with 
inside face of front just touching gauged line A in. from 
end of drawer side. Mark out, with sharp knife, the 
shape of completed morti.ses (Fig. 278). 

With fine tenon saw, saw exactly to knife lines; saw 
away also the triangular pieces at sides. Chisel out 
triangular mortises for tenons, chiseling from both sides 
of the board (Fig. 279). 

Fit drawer bottom, and drive drawer together, dry, 
without glue. 




Fig. 276 




Fig. 277 



154 



CABINET MAKING 





Warm wood in warming oven, and glue together, 
driving dovetails together with hammer. Do not glue 
drawer bottom in at any plate. 

Square up drawer with large try-square, and let dry 
over night. 

Top and Shelf 

Plane partitions to exact dimensions, lay out exact 
position on top and shelf; drive in small brads to mark 
dowel hole centers, bore for f in. dowels, taking care not 
to let point of bit come through top side of top. Fit 
partitions in place dry, and screw up dry, with hand 
screws. 

Take apart, lay out corners of top, making diagonal 
corners exactly 2 ins. long, or as long as width of legs, 
saw off corners, and plane true. 

Lay top of lathe on shelf and mark out shelf from top, 
taking great care to have shelf exact size of top, or legs 
will stand awry. 

Warm partition in warming oven slightly, and glue 
]iartitions, top and shelf together. 

Screw legs in place, using 2i in. or 3 in. No. 14 round 
head, blued screws. 

Prepare small blocks for braces (Fig. 280), and glue 
and screw braces to lower shelf; do not glue braces to 
legs. 

Screw braces to legs carefully; the liraces will stiffen 
legs very much. 

Carefully fit drawer, that it may run in and out 
smoothly, without binding or rattling. 



CABINET MAKING 



155 




-^-- 



Fia. 2S0 

Fit a lock to drawer if desired. 

A spring button, similar to a glove button, may be 
fitted to under edge of drawer front, to stop it in right 
))lai'e. 

Stain or fill, following directions under Finishing. 

The inside of drawer will look better if sandpapered 
smooth and white, and varnished natural, with shellac 
or copal. 

In tables and chests of drawers which stand against 
the wall, and in which the drawer has only one front — 
does not open from either side — the drawer back is 
made f in. thick, and wide enough only to extend down 
to groove for drawer bottom, allowing the drawer 
bottom to slide in and out. 

The tenons in the drawer back are marked out and 
sawed clear through and through the board, then the 
back is held upon the drawer sides, and the shape of 
the mortises marked out, with a sharp knife, on the 
sides, as before. 



SMALL TABLE 

(Combination Turning and Cabinet Exercise) 

(Fig. 281) 

Stock Bill 

1 P— 17^"xl3i"xi"— top. 

2 P — 14"x4"xJ" — side rails. 
2 P— 9J"x4"x|"— end rails. 
2 P—1.3V'x^"x|"— molding. 
2 P — 9l"xV'x^" — molding. 
4 P— 12"x2J"x2"— legs. 

The legs may be sawed to shape indicated (Fig. 283), 
and then turned. 

After turning, saw at band saw to dimensions shown 
at toe (Fig. 282), hollow out two soft pine blocks to 
prevent vise from bruising upper part of leg, screw in 
vise, and spoke-shave leg round and true. 

Sandpaper toe until ridges left by spoke-shave are 
smoothed off. 

From the flat molding, i in. wide, to the 'op of the 
leg, one-quarter of the leg is to be sawed and chiseled 
away, to receive the scjuare corner of the box or rails 
(Fig. 285). 

Lay out this quarter opposite the toe of the leg, with 
knife and square end of try-square blade. 

Prepare templet, or block of wood about 2| ins. long, 
and 1| X IJ ins. wide and thick. 

Since the body of leg is 1| ins. in diameter, to mark off 
this part of leg, gauge f in. along two adjacent sides of 
templet block, saw out or chisel out the corner (Fig. 



156 



CABINET MAKING 




^_ /7^: , 




^^-* 



Fig. 2S1 



VLi 




Fig. 282 



CABINET MAKING 



157 



y — 



Fig. 283 



286), and use the edges A and B as straight edges to 
mark out cy Under with knife (Fig. 287). 

Saw with tenon saw, outside and close to knife hnes, 
chisel corner out square, trying with try-square, and 
number and fit each leg to its corner when rails are 
glued up and squared. 




Projection of Top 
Fig. 284 




Fig. 286 





F/G. 287 



158 



CABINET MAKING 



Rails 

of side and end rails true 



and 



Plane outside face^ 
smooth. 

Cut out of side rails a square rabbet or gain, at ends, 
in depth the thickness of the end rails, and up to { in. 
of face of side rails, so that joint will be covered by leg 
(Fig. 288). 



Tt'a-i/ 



Carefully glue and nail rails together at corners, 
taking care that no nail hole shows J in. down from top 
edge of rails, as at that distance down the leg is only 
I in. in diameter. 

Square up box or rails with try-square, when glued 
and nailed, and lay aside to dry for two hours. 

When dry, plane corners true and smooth, antl sand- 
paper outside faces of rails. Joint the lower edges of 
rails also. 

With rails held in vise, bore for screws with -gj 'ii- 
gimlet bit, slanting the holes slightly toward the upper 
and lower edge, that the screw-driver may be held out- 
side the box (Fig. 289). 

Prepare a short corner block. A, and a shapeil block, 
B, to fit out.'^ide of curved leg (Fig. 290). These blocks 



J_^,. 









■\ 





Fig. 290 



are to receive the hand screw that holds the leg in place 
while screwing it on. 

Warm leg in warming oven, glue carefully with hot 
glue, and screw in place, using IJ in. or 2 in. No. 11 
screws. 

Jliter the i x | in. molding to molding on leg, 
making a perfectly fitted miter joint. Warm moldings 



CABINET JIAKING 



159 



in warming oven and glue to rails. Joint off upper 
edge of rails, including top end of legs. 

Bore large slanting hole about f in. down from top 
edge of rail, to form a shoulder for screw head, and bore 
^ in. or I in. holes for screws (Fig. 291). 




Top 

Carefully lay out top to dimensions shown (Fig. 281) 
and saw at band saw. Spoke-shave and file edges 
smooth and true to exact shape. 

Mark off molding on lower face and on edge, and 
with carving gouge gouge out molding, making careful 
miters at intersection, of curves with straight sides. 

Hold top in place with hand screws and screw on top. 

Saw off any long leg, at lower end, with tenon saw, 
and bevel off all legs at toe to prevent splitting off. 

Fill and wax, following directions under Finishing. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 
Cabinet Making 

1. What is meant by cabinet making? 

2. Name several hard woods used by cabinet makers. 

3. Why do cabinet makers prefer curly, cross grained 

wood? 

4. Instead of nailing, what method is used in cabinet 

making to hold pieces of wood together? 

5. How are the pieces held in place while drying? 

6. Show how to use a hand screw, and explain why 

jaws must be parallel. 

7. What convenient clamp takes the place of very 

large hand screws? 
Make a sketch of the clamp. 

8. Make a drawing of a simple, cheap clamp, to glue 

up table tops — a clamp that may be made and 
used at home. 

9. Name two ways in which two or more boards may 

be jointed together, and give an argument in 
favor of each method. 

10. Is a board as strong when glued up of several 

pieces, using glue alone, as it is when doweled, 
or tongued and grooved, and glued? 

11. What is the oljject of so much pressure in making 

a good glued joint? 

12. Before gluing ends together, how should the wood 

be treated? 

13. What is a rubbed glue joint? 

14. What is glue? How do you prepare it? 



160 



CABINET AfAKING 



17. 



IS. 



10. 



20. 
21. 



24. 



25. 
26. 



What is the ol)jr'ct of heating the wood before glu- I 27. 



Explain why the plane-bit must be ground truer 
■ and straighter and sharpened to a keener edge 

to use on hard, curly wood. 
How must the cover or breaker be set? 
What tool must be used to finish smoothing a 

\ery curly, cro.ss grained piece of wood, after 

planing? 
Explain carefully how this tool is sharpened. 



Sandpaper 

Why are fine workmen afraid to use much sand- 
paper? 

What makes the best sandpaper block? 

How is sandpaper matle? 

How is it marked as regards fineness and coarse- 
ness? 

Varnishing 

What oil is sometimes used before varni.shing wood- 
work to enrich the grain? What proportion of 
turpentine must be u.sed with it? 

What spirit varnish is recommended by varnish 
firms to be used before varnishing with copal? 

How does this varnish hold the natural color of 
the wood? 

What is wood-filler, and why is it used? 

Explain carefully how it is brushed on and cleaned 
off. 



28. 

29. 
30. 
31. 

32. 



3.5. 



38. 



39. 



What color of filler must be used for natural wood, 
mahogany or red oak, Flemish oak, antique or 
weathered oak? 

Stains 

What can you say of the use of stains in preparing 
for finishing woods? 

Name three kinds of stains. 

Why is the oil stain better than water stain? 

What two stains combined give mahogany and 
cherry the rich, old color so much desired? 

Explain carefully the method of using the.se solu- 
tions. 

To Stain Oak 

Why does oak require more filler than other woods? 
How apply the golden oak stain before filling? 
Do the stains color the lights? W'hy? 
How are the rays or lights in quartered oak made 
to show more brightly? 

Varnish 

What is shellac varnish? 

State fully how lac is formed; how it is reduced 
to stick-lac and shell-lac; bleached white; un- 
bleached; orange. 

In purifying shellac, what coloring matter is ob- 
tained from the bodies of the little insects? 

Is this coloring matter costly? 

How do you apply shellac, and must it be brushed 
on thick or thin? 



CABINET ilAKING 



161 



40. How long should each coat dry? . I 
Why wet the sandpaper to sandpaper varnish? 54. 
Should a block be used to hold the sandpaper? 55. 

41. Give two reasons for using shellac varnish before 

copal. 56. 

42. Will shellac varnish stand moisture? 
Why is it used on floors and stairways? 57. 
What is meant by quick finishing? 

43. Besides its use as a preservative of wood, what 

other uses has shellac? 58. 

44. What must be done to shellac varnish and other 59. 
varnishes, to keep them in good condition? 

60. 
Copal Varnish 

45. What is copal varnish? 

46. What is copal gum and where obtained or found? [ 61. 

47. From what is linseed oil obtained? 

How is it prepared for varnish? 62. 

48. What is turpentine? Explain fully how it is ob- 

tained, and at what sacrifice to the tree. What 63. 
is a still? 

49. Explain how the three ingredients are combined to 64. 

make copal varnish. 

50. Name several ways in which varnish "acts up." 

51. Where should varnishing be done? 

52. Will copal varnish stand moisture, heat, and cold? 

Why? 65. 

53. How do varnish manufacturers insist on thinnin;^ 

the varnish, rather than by pouring into it raw 66. 
turpentine? Why? I 



To Flow Copal 

Explain carefully just how to "flow" copal. 

How long should each coat of copal dry ? State 
carefully how to prepare one coat for the next. 

Should a block of wood be used to hold the sand- 
paper? Why? 

If dry, how should the varnish come off on the 
sandpaper? 

If not perfectly dry, how does it act? 

Why brush off after each sandpapering? 

Why allow a longer time to elapse between the 
latter coats of copal? 

Should the last coat be sandpapered? Why? 

Rubbing Down 

Why is it necessary to rub down varnish? Give 

several good reasons. 
What is pumice stone? How prepared for use in 

rubbing down varnish? 
With what will it cut fast and clean? With what 

is it sometimes used? 
Describe very carefully the process of rubbing 

down. 
Why is the felt first held on a block? 

Patching 

What must be done first if the varnish is rubbed 

through? 
How get the color to the bare wood after rubbing 

through? 



162 



CABINET MAKING 



G7. Explain carefully with sketch how to apply the 

varnish on a patch. 
GS. 81iould copal varnish be patched with shellac 

varnish? Why? 

Polishing 

69. What ma):es it necessary to polish? 

70. What is rotten stone? With what is it used to 

polish? 

71. Explain carefully how to proceed in polishing a 

varnished surface. 

72. What makes the best rubber with which to polish? 

Waxing 

73. What do you know of waxed furniture? 



74. 
75. 
76. 



78. 



79. 

SO. 



81. 



»Why is varnishing a better way of finishing wood? 

What is our furniture wax? 

What do the manufacturers of the wax polish 
insist on, if a smooth, bright surface is recjuired? 

Describe -carefully how the wax is applied, rubbed 
off, and polished. How many coats are neces- 
sary? 

Cracking and Blistering 

What must bo done if the varnish cracks between 

coats? 
What makes the varnish on old furniture crack? 
Will varnishing over the old cracked varnish 

remedy matters? 
If varnish blisters, what must be done? 



METHODS OF MOLDING 



A pattern maker should know something of mohUng, 
that his patterns may be removed from the sand easily. 

A casting is generally made in molding sand, held 
in place by a "flask," a frame of iron or wood, with 
neither top nor bottom. 

The flask is made in two or more parts: an upper, 
called the "c'Oi)p," and the lower, named the "drag" 



This place of separation in the pattern, and also the 
ine of separation between the flasks, is called the 
'parting" (Fig. 293, a). 




or "nowel"; the two parts fitting on each other by 
means of pins and a corresponding way, as at A, B 
(Fig. 292). 

The wooden pattern for the casting may be rammed 
up wholly in the drag, or partly in the di-ag and cope. 

When rammed up in both parts, the pattern is some- 
times made in two parts, so that it will separate on the 
line separating the two parts of the flask. 



r . »77- ■ -- • . C - ■ . , -. .V' - < --- ' 



Fig. 293 

The line of .separation is not always a straight line or 
plain, as the sand of the cope often hangs down into the 
drag, on account of some depression or hole in the pat- 
tern. In casting a hollow ring, the cope sand is rammed 
down into the round hole, and lifts out with the cope 
(Fig. 294). 

Sometimes the pattern maker does not take time to 
"part" his pattern, so a solid pattern for a cylinder 



164 



METHODS OF MOLDING 




would be rammed up entirely within the drag (Fig. 295). 
But to get the pattern out, the sand must be lifted 




Fig. 295 

away (Fig. 296) half way down the pattern. The cope 
sand is then rammed about the exposed half of the cylin- 
der and lifts off (Fig. 297). This lifting the sand away 
in the drag (to get the pattern out), to be replaced by 
sand rammed uj) in the cope, is called "coping down." 





Fig. 297 



The pattern for the cylinder should be made in two 
parts, "parted"; half of it is rammed up in the drag 
(Fig. 298), the other half, having projecting pins to fit 



Fig. 298 

the holes, is laid on and rammed up in the cope. When 
the two parts of the flask are lifted apart, the pattern 
is removed easily. 



ilETHODS OF -MOLDING 



165 



Coring and Cores 

A core is the baked siiape or form of the inside opening 
or chamber of a casting. It is made of coarse sand and 
flour and oil, and is shaped in a core-box, then baked 
in a core-oven until very hard. The flour and water 
form a paste to hold the sand together, and the oil 
makes the core smooth, and is used, also, that it may take 
fire and burn up the gases caused by the molten metal 
pouring into the mold. These gases, together with the 
steam formed by the hot metal against the moist sand, 
would "blow up" the mold, unless "vented" freely, 
and made to burn. 

The core-box, in which the core is shaped before 
baking, must be made to come apart very easily, in 
order not to spoil the core. 

Cylindrical cores — round cores — are always made in 
half core-boxes (Fig. 299) that the soft half cores (Fig. 




IL^ 



Fig. 299 

300) may lie on their flat diameters while baking, in- 
stead of on their round outside surfaces. The two 




halves are then glued or pasted together, after filing a 
groove lengthwise in each, for a vent. 

To cast a cylinder with a round hole through it, from 
end to end (Fig. 301) the pattern would be made the 




E 



3 



Fig. 301 Fig. 302 

length and diameter required, and on both ends would 
be turned core-prints, having the diameter of the hole, 
and of reasonable length (Fig. 302). These prints 
become, then, a part of the pattern, and together with 
the pattern, will leave a print or impression in the sand. 
This shape or impression left by the core-prints is to be 
the resting place of the core, which is made long enough 
to extend from print to print, over across the impression 
made by the pattern proper (Fig. 303). 




Fig. 303 



166 



METHODS OF MOLDING 



The metal pours in around the core, filling the im- 
pression made by the pattern. 

The core fills the impression made by the core prints, 
so no metal pours into these holes. 

When cool, the core is broken up and rammed out 
of the casting, a new core being required for each 
casting. 



The head-stock has two arms at the back, to hold a 
shaft, on which are gear wheels. The bearings for this 
shaft are quite long, and are cored out (Fig. 304). 

Will a pattern shaped like the head-stock, with the 
arms and bearings, pull from the sand? 

A careful study of the drawing will show that it is 





Fig. .305 




306 



The metal is frequently poured in core sand or cores, 
green sand not being used. 

The drawing by Peter S. Dingey (Fig. 372), showing 
how a chain is cast, makes plain the method. 

The metal is sometimes poured into molds made 
from patterns and core-sand molds combined, as in 
the case of the head-stock of the machine lathe. 



impossible to ram such a pattern up in anj' way and get 
it out of the sand. 

So the part of the pattern tliat will pull (the head- 
stock proper, without the arms and bearings), is made 
of wood as usual. 

A core-box is made (Fig. 30.5) with one edge having 
the exact curve, a, of the jxittern, that the core may 



METHODS OF MOLDING 



167 



fit the pattern perfectly. In the bottom of this core- 
box is glued a shape of half the thickness of the arm 
(see B); also half the length of the bearing (see C); 
also a short core-print, to core the hole through the 
bearing, is glued on the pattern of the half-bearing 
(see D). 

Another core-box, to make the left half of the arm 
and the bearing, is made (two core-boxes are necessary, 
a right and left), also a little core-box, in which to shape 
the round core for the hole through the bearing. 

Two of the large cores, a right and left, are now pasted 
together, with the little round core hanging in place 
across the opening inside, which opening is the full size 
of the arm and bearing. These hollow cores are now 
placed against the wooden pattern, and whole rammed 
up together, turned over and the wooden pattern (the 
head-stock proper) lifted out, leaving the large mold 
of the wooden pattern and the neck and bearings to be 
poured full of iron (the cores are, of course, held firmly 
in place by the green sand rammed up around them) 
(Fig. 306). 

Movable Parts 

A pattern would frequently pull from the sand easily 
if it were not for some little boss, or over-hanging part 
or extra ring, which interferes with the patterns coming 
from the sand. 

These parts are made separately and fastened to the 
pattern proper while ramming up, with long, loose nails 
or dowels, wliicli are pulled out after the pattern is 



rammed up, then the pattern will slide past the loose 
boss or over-hanging part, which remains in the sand, 
to be picked out with a wire or the fingers, after the 
larger part of the pattern has been removed. 

The jjattern for the gibbed way, if made like Fig. 307, 




would not come from the sand, so part of the pattern 
(Fig. 308) is made to pull as usual, and the over- 
hanging parts are made separately, and fastened to the 




Fig. .308 



168 



METHODS OF MOLDING 



main pattern, while ramming up, with httle dovetailed, 
wedge-shaped pieces (Fig. 309). 




When the larger part of pattern is removed, these 
over-hanging, triangular pieces are left in the mold, 
under the sand (Fig. 310, a), and are slid from under 
with a wire, or the fingers, and lifted ovit. 



Another example is the shifting fork, with the boss 
on the end, B (Fig. 311), to take the set screw. This 
boss interferes with the pattern being rammed up on its 
flat back, and makes it necessary for the molder to 
ram it up on its side and cope down to the web. 

If the boss is loose, the pattern will pull easily, so it 
is made without the boss, but with a dovetailed way C 
(Fig. 311) cut in the end. The boss is made on the 
block to fit the way. The two pieces are put together, 
the pattern rammed up on its back, and when the 
larger part is removed, the boss remains in the sand, 
to be pulled out easily with a wire. 




METHODS OF MOLDING 



169 



Another example of the movable boss is that on the 
pattern for the small, cast-iron turbine case. An ele- 
vation plan, also a section through A, B, are shown 
(Fig. 312). 



Ill ■ -I ilil 




Note. — Drawings show a section of pattern in the sand. 






i2V- 






The top disk, having the large hole, is cast separately, 
and screwed to the case. 

The lower disk and the case are parted at C, and 
together are rammed up in a 3-parted flask (Fig. 313). 

The boss will prevent the main part of the pattern 
from being removed from the sand, so it is made loose 
and fastened, with its long core-print, to the pattern 
with a loose dowel, which is pulled out after the pattern 
is rammed up, the boss being held firmly against the 
pattern by the green sand (see D). 

The first cope (Fig. 314) is first taken off, and the flat 
disk (Fig. 315) removed. 



r.-'&V^^^-.'c^ii\'':clv;cvV4^'r.;-^! fe :gEz~i> -^ 



Fig. 3U 



Fig. SiS 



Fig. 315 

The hollow case (Fig. 316) is next removed from the 
second cope, leaving the bo.ss (Fig. 317). 

Then the second cope is lifted off, taking with it the 
boss. 



Fig. 316 



170 



METHODS OF MOLDING 











Fig. 317 



The boss is now easily removed (Fig. 318). The 
pattern lea^'es its own core — the green sand core resting 
on tlie drag (Fig. 319). 




•-C'^.' 

-•W'.^ 









This pattern could be rammed up in a two-parted flask 
(Fig. 320) if a solid core-print, extending the whole 
width of the case, were glued on (see a, a, Fig. 321). 

In the impression made by this print is slid a core, 
made in the core-box /), h. 

The inside of the bottom of this box is curved to 



Fig. 320 




Fig. 321 



correspond to the curvature of the case. On the bottom 
is glued a boss, the exact size and shape of the boss on 
the drawing shown. 

Notice that the hole in the boss is continued down into 
the bottom board of the core-box, that the core made 
may core a hole through the case also. 

This core, in connection with the pattern, will form 
a mold which will give the casting required. 



BIETHODS OF :\IOLDING 



171 



Metal Patterns I 

If many castings are to be made from the same pat- ' 10. 

tern, tlie pattern is made of metal. These metal pat- 11. 

terns are very serviceable, and leave the sand more 

easily and cleanly than those made of wood. Metal 12. 

patterns are always used when the castings are of a 13. 

delicate or light character. In all such cases, the first 14. 

pattern, from which the metal pattern is to be molded, 

is made of wood, allowance being made for double 

shrinkage. 1.5. 

16. 
SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 

Methods of Molding ! ^''• 

1. Why should a pattern maker know something of j IS. 

molding? ^ | 

2. In what is a casting generally made? 

3. What is a molding flask, and name the parts? 

4. May the pattern be rammed up in either part? 19. 

Explain. 

5. Why are patterns made in two or more parts? 

Explain. 20. 

6. What is meant by the ]iarting? Is the parting j 21. 

line always a plane or a straight line? 

7. Make a sketch showing the two parts of a flask, the , 22. 

pattern rammed up in place, the sprue, the gate, 23. 
the riser, vents, and name each part. 

8. Make a sketch showing how a solid pattern of a 

cylinder may be rammed up and removed. 24. 

9. What is meant by coping down? 



Coring and Cores 
What is a core, anil of what is it made? 
What is a core-box, anil how must it be con- 
structed? 
How are cylindrical cores always made? 
What are core-prints? 
JMake a sketch of a pattern for a cylinder 6 ins. 

long and 2 ins. in diameter, having a straight 

hole through it, from end to end, 1 in. in diameter. 
What becomes of the cores after a casting is made? 
Is the metal always poured in molding sand? 

Explain. 
Describe carefully the method of preparing the 

mold for the head-stock of the machine lathe. 
Why is it necessary to make patterns with movable 

parts? 
How are these parts held in place while ramming 

up? 
Describe two or three patterns which must be made 

with movable parts, if they are to be taken from 

the sand easily. 
What is a three-parted flask? Name its parts. 
Show why it is necessary to have a three-parted 

flask in which to ram up the turbine case. 
Why have such a long core-print on the boss? 
Describe another method of ramming up the 

turbine case in a regular flask. 
Metal Patterns 
Explain carefully why metal patterns are used. 
What is double shrinkage? 



172 



PATTERN MAKING 



ytnisixed, oil c/dr. 



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Fig. 322 



PATTERN MAKING 



Pattern for Iron Block (Fig. 322) 

A pattern for a block of iron, introducing finish, 
shrinkage, draft, rappage. To be varnished black, all over. 

The "mold" is the shape in the sand left by the 
pattern; a good mold is made only by "ramming up" 
(pounding) the sand hard against the pattern. 

To get the pattern out of the sand easily, the mold 
is divided into two or more parts, called the "cope" and 
the "nowel" or "drag." The patterns are also divided 
into two or more parts, to be more readily taken from 
the mold. 

The place where the mold is divided, and the place 
where the pattern is divided, is called the "parting." 

The pattern is also slanted or "drafted" on the ver- 
tical edges (made wedge-shaped) so it may be "pulled" 
or lifted out of the sand easily. 

To loosen the sand around the pattern the pattern 
is rapped or pounded, slightly, sidewise, called "rapping." 

Finish. — Finish, in pattern work, is the extra amount 
of wood, usually yV i'l- or rnore, added to a pattern 
on any surface, so that the casting made may be 
smoothed and trued up on that surface. 

Shrink.\ge.- — In metal, shrinkage is the amount of con- 
tracting or shrinking, while cooling. In pattern work. 



shrinkage is the amount of wood added to a pattern 
to allow for the shrinking of the metal while cooling. 
In iron this shrinkage averages J in. to each 1 ft. 
In brass and bronze this shrinkage averages j^ 
in. to each 1 ft. 

Shrink Rule. — This shrinkage is accurately measured 
by the shrink rule, which is for iron J in. longer than 
the common rule, or 12J ins. long, and for brass x^^- 
in. longer or 12y\ ins. long to each 1 ft. measurement 
of the common rule. 

Patterns must be made by, and measured with, 
the shrink rule. 

Draft. — Draft is the amount of slant or bevel on the 
vertical face of a pattern, which amount must be 
added to the dimensions of the pattern. 

Rappage. — Rappage is the amount added to the dimen- 
sions of the mold by rapping the pattern sidewise 
in order to loosen it from the sand. Rappage is 
never considered, excepting in very small patterns. 

A thick piece of wiro, with a thread or screw at the 
end, is screwed right into the pattern, and tapped 
sidewise to loosen the pattern from the sand. In 
large patterns a rapping plate of metal is let into the 
pattern and screwed down. This plate has a hole in 
it, tapped to receive a rod, which is rapped sidewise. 



174 



PATTERN MAKING 



The plate and rod also become the lifting plate and 
rod, by means of which the heavy pattern is lifted from 
the sand. 



Note. — Pupils are to be given the dimensions and drawinp: of 
the finished casting only, and are to prepare in each exercise in 
pattern work their own dimensions and drawings for the pattern. 
These dimensions and drawings are to be made in their shop 
books, and are to receive their instructor's signature before begin- 
ning work on the pattern. 

Varnishing Patterns 

Patterns are usually varnished with shellac varnish, 
because it dries quickly, leaving a very hard, smooth 
surface. The smooth surface of the pattern makes a 
smoother mold, and also allows the pattern to be pulled 
from the sand more easily. 

A'arnishing is necessary to pre.serve the pattern, as 
the damp sand would soon destroy the glue joints, and 
the u.sefulness of the pattern, as it would warp out of 
shape, because of the moisture. 

To protect the pattern further, lamp-black is mixed 
with the varnish (lamp-black is the fine, greasy soot 
obtained from smoke). The lamp-black adds to the 
preserving cjualities of the varnish, by filling up all the 
pores of the wooil. 

It is the general castom to varnish patterns black, if 
they are to be cast in iron. Core-prints are varnished 
with the uncolored or natural varnish, or with red 
varnish, to distinguish them from the pattern. Red 
varnish is made by mixing shellac varnish with Chinese 
vermilion. 



Patterns made for brass castings are usually painted 
red, with core-prints some other color — natural or black. 

Comparative Weight of Patterns and Castings 
Dry white pine, for pattern work, is aliout one six- 
teenth (xV) the weight of cast-iron, so the weight of an 
iron casting may be roughly estimated by multiplying 
the weight of the pattern by 16. 

Fillets 

Fillets are small quarter curves (Fig. 323), of any 
length, used to fill the corners of a pattern (Fig. 324). 



k^ 




Fig. 32:3 



Fig, 324 



This filling the corners adds greatly to the strength of 
the casting, as can be seen, but the real reason that 
fillets are used is that the little particles of iron, in 
cooling, arrange themselves around a curve, but separate 
and divide at a corner, thereby weakening such a 
casting. 

There are wooden fillets, which can be used only on 
straight patterns, and leather fillets, which can be 
glued in any corner or curve. These fillets can be bought 
by the foot, from I in. up in width, by sixteenths. 



PATTERN MAKING 



175 



To prepare a leather fillet, lay on a boaril to apply 
the glue easily, which must not be too hot, or it will 
crinkle the leather. Lay in the angle, and rub into 
position by means of a dowel rod, rounded off at the 
end to give the required curve to the soft, pliable 
leather. As soon as the fillet is rubbed into position, 
wipe off all glue immediately, with a cloth dipped in 
hot water, and wrung nearly dry. 

A cheaper and more common fillet is beeswax, which 
is pressed into the corners by means of a gouge, heatetl 
in warm water. 



Shifting Fork with Movable Boss (Fig. 325) 

This pattern, with the movable boss, may be rammed 
up on its flat back in the drag. Without the boss 
movable it would have to be rammed up on its side and 
coped down to the web. 

Use fillets in the corners at the base of the web, and 
around the base of the large boss, that there will be no 
sharp corners of sand, over which the heavy melted 
iron must flow, carrying with it particles of sand to the 
bottom of the mold. 




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176 



PATTERN JIAKING 



If the boss (the extra round bit of metal, cast on the 
entl of the fork and tapped for the set screw) were 
tight, the pattern would have to be rammed up on its 
side, and the sand lifted away carefully, half way down 
the pattern, as shown in Figure 326, to get the pattern 
out. 







This makes extra work for the molder, every time 
the pattern is rammed up. The upper part of the flask — 
the cope — is then put on, parting sand sifted into the 
shallow hole around the pattern, and all over the flat 
surface of the drag, then the cope is rammed up. When 
lifted off and turned over, the cope has, protruding from 
it, the shape of the shallow hole around the pattern, 
m which is *^he shape of the upper half of the pattern. 
This cutting down into the drag, and ramming up in the 
cope, is called "coping down." 

If the boss is made loose, making the mold is much 
simpler The pattern is rammed up on its flat back, 



turned over, and lifted out of the sand carefully, leaving 
the boss, partly covered with sand, in the mold. With 
a sharp wire, the boss is pulled from under the sand, 
out into the large hole left by the round part of the 
pattern, and then out of the mold. 

A little extra work on the pattern, making the boss 
loose, saves much extra labor "coping down" every 
time the pattern is rammed up. 

Varnish black, all over, with only one coat inside 
movable part, that it may not stick. 

Pattern for Gibbed Way (Figs. 327, 328) 

(With movable purls) 

First, decide how a pattern for such a way may be 
rammed up and pulled from the sand. 

It cannot be rammed up on end, because such a way 
is sometimes 18 ins. or more long. 

It may be rammed up on one of its faces, which makes 
it necessary to have the overhanging parts of the pat 
tern loo.se, or it will not come from the sand. 

If the pattern is drafted toward (made smaller) the 
flat side, the cope sand will have to be rammed into the 
dovetailed way, and when lifted off will have to lift out, 
and drag up, the loose, triangular sticks, which would 
be poor policy. 

If the draft is towartl the dovetailed side or face, th"' 
loose, triangular sticks will lie in the bottom of the mold, 
in the drag; the pattern will be lifted up past them, 
then the sticks may be slid from under the overhanging 
sand and lifted out (Fig. 329). 



PATTERN .MAKING 



177 



TJictcit- At^ /i.t /ka.ti'ii 







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Fig. 3:37 



178 



PATTERN -MAKING 

















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Fl(J. 3L\S 



PATTERN MAKING 



179 



Study Fig. 329. 

To make the pattern, plane the base of the pattern 
to the right thickness, | in. Do not plane the edges 
or ends (see drawing A, Fig. 329). 

Mark off a center hne from end to end; measure off 
1 in. on either side of the center line. 

Plane narrow sticks — rectangular sticks — to i in. 
thick; plane one edge also, the inside edge (do not plane 
outside edge). 

Glue these sticks in place 2 ins. apart, on lines already 
found. 

While glue is drying, plane to dimensions (except the 
length) the triangular sticks, and glue on small rec- 
tangular blocks, which are to make the small, dove- 
tailed blocks. These small blocks may be chiseled 
into shape more easily when glued to the sticks. Mark 
off edges of pattern from the center line and plane to 
dimensions. 

Varnish black, all over, with only one coat inside 
movable parts, that they may not stick. 

Brass Bushing (Fig. 330) 

Brass and bronze ."shrink, on cooling, j\ in. to each foot. 

This pattern is rammed up on end, and must have 
draft on vertical faces. The upper core-print must be 
loose, that the pattern may be rammed up on the 
follow-board, in the drag (the parting is the line A, R, 
Fig. 330). The core-print is then put in place, and 
rammed up in the cope. 

This core-print must have much draft, that the core, 



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PATTERN MAKING 



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Fig. 330 



PATTERN ^MAKING 



181 



when placed upriglit in tlie hole left by the lower core- 
print (which has no draft), if slightly out of the per- 
pendicular, will swing into position by scraping against 
the sloping sides of the upper hole. 

A small fillet should be turned under the rim, that 
the heavy metal may not have a sharp corner of sand 
to pour over, and carry particles of sand with it down 
into the mold. 

Varnishing 

Brass patterns are usually varnished red, with core- 
prints black or natural color. 

The inside of the core-box (not the upper face of core- 
box) must be varnished same color as core-prints; the 
upper face like pattern. 

This pattern may be made to "leave its own core" 




by giving the hole a great amount of "reverse" draft 
(Fig. 331). 



This method would be poor practice, in that the 
amount of draft must be so great in order that the 
pattern will pull easily, that much metal is wasted and 
also much time wasted in the machine shop, in boring 
out the hole. 

To Make Semi-circular Core-boxes 

True up block on face and ends, and gauge a center 
line. 

With dividers, describe on each end a semi-circle of 
the required radius; connect the extremities of the 
two end arcs by straight lines on the face of the block 
(Fig. 332). Gouge out the core-box to the lines, using 




Fig. 332 
the try-square as a templet to prove the half-circle, 
and if the block has been worked out to a perfect semi- 
circle, and the edges of the blades of the try-square or 
right-angled triangle touch the semi-circular curve at 
its extremities, the right angle or corner will touch 
the arc at every point (Fig. 333). 

A core-box plane (Fig. 334) is constructed on this 
same principle, that if the sides of a right angle lie upon 
the extremities of a diameter of a circle, the vertex of 
the right angle will lie upon the circumference of the 
circle. 



182 



PATTERN MAKING 



The plane-bit of the core-box plane is narrow and 
pointed, and may be pounded over to plane on one side, 
or the other, or in the center. 




To use the core-box plane, first mark off the block 
as shown (Fig. 335), connecting the two semi-circular 
arcs at either end by straight lines. Tack two very 




thin strips of hard wood along these lines, and on the 
outside, as shown. The.se strips serve to guide the 
plane, which is turned over on one side, the other lying 
against the strip. The plane-bit must be pounded 
over, so as not to cut the strip. Plane partly down one 
side, then pound the bit over and plane down the other 
until the heavier part of the work is done, down to the 
dotted line a-b-c, when the strips must be removed, 
and the core-box completed to a perfect half-circle. 
When making the.se finishing cuts, without the strips, 
care must be taken to ailju.st the plane-bit centrally, so 
that it will cut equally to both right and left; otherwise 
the work will not be correct. 

The core-box must then be sandpapered, first with 
coarse, then with fine sandpaper held on a cylindrical 
block of a diameter slightly less than that of the core- 
box. 

Tool Post (Fig. 336) 

Finished all over, outside — hole unfinished. A Parted 
Pattern {Fig. 336) 

This pattern is parteil, that it may be taken from the 
sand easily. 

One half the pattern is laid on the follow-board, 
rammed up, turned over (Fig. 337) ; the other half is 
laid on the first half — the dowels hold it in place — and 
rammed up in the cope. 

When the cope is lifted away, the two parts of the 
pattern are easily removed from the sand. 

If the ]iattern were made solid (Fig. 338) it would have 
to be rammed up entirely in the drag, and coped down 



PATTERN .MAKING 



183 



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IS naitid a.u^ 
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eu/^i /Aa./-/At 
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184 



PATTERN MAKING 



"""^^- 




Fig. 337 




Fig. 338 



to the center of the cyhiider (see dotted Hnes on drawing) 
and to the top edge of the core-prints, making much 
extra work for the molder. 

This casting has a rectangular hole through it. The 
dimen.sion of the hole, one way, is so small, | in., that it 
will be impossible to give enough draft to the sides to 
let the pattern " leave its own core." Then, too, the hole 
is unfinished, and if drafted so much, would be all out 
of true — not a rectangle — and time would be wasted in 



truing it up. So the hole must be "cored out" — that is, 
the metal must be made to pour around a smooth, 
rectangular brick, or shape, called a "core" (Fig. 339), 



'"^-"OVi 






Fig. .3.39 



made of core sand and flour and a little oil, baked in a 
hot oven. 

This core is sliaped in a "core-box" (Fig. 336). 

If this core were made the exact size and shape of the 
hole, there would be no way of holding it in place, up in 
the center of the mold. So blocks, called " core-prints," 
are fastened to the pattern, at the exact position of the 
hole, the blocks becoming a part of the pattern, and leav- 
ing, like the pattern, their "prints" or shapes in the 
sand, which prints or shapes become a resting place 
for the core, the core being made long enough to extend 
clear acro.ss the round hole left by the round pattern 
and out into the rectangular holes left by the prints (see 
drawing, showing the baked core in place and the part- 
ing line a-B of the mold. Fig. 339). 

Notice that the core fills up the holes left by the core- 
prints, so no metal runs into these holes. 



PATTERN MAKING 



185 



Constructing a Parted Pattern 

The stock must be long enough to glue a place at 
least f in. long at the ends only (Fig. 340) and leave room 



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Fig. 340 
for the pattern to be turned between these glued 
places. 

Before gluing, two dowels must be glued in place; 
glued tight at one end and much rounded over at the 
other that the two parts of the pattern may come apart 
very easily. 

In the tool-post, the core-prints are made of pieces 
3f ins. long, and are let into each half of the pattern. 
In turning the pattern, find the positions of the two 
dowels on the cylinder, and lay out the position of the 
core-print between the two dowels, so that in cutting 
the groove for the core-prints, the dowels will not be 
cut away. 

Do not cut the ends off the pattern in the lathe, or the 
two halves will fly apart. Saw off ends at your bench. 

Varnish 

Pattern, black, outside and inside; core-prints, red, 
outside and inside. Core-box red inside, black on top 
and bottom face only. 



Wrenches (Fig. 342) 

The handles for the wrenches are to be turned on the 
lathe with the live and dead centers in the positions shown. 




Eb 



-^.-'l^fH 



;^ , ^ A, 

J- 'a "f 

Fig. 341 

Mark off on the If in. edge of wood the shape as at 
a (Fig. 341) and saw at band saw. Do not saw away 
the mark of the live center x, as it gives the position 
of the center line B on the new sawed faces. 

Find the point on the center line, B, which is the center 
of the hexagonal head of the wrench, and lay out the 
two hexagons on either face. Bore a f in. hole through 
the head and chisel. 

Find the point on the center line, a (Fig. 343), which 
is the center of the hexagonal head of the wrench, and 



186 



PATTERN MAKING 




(Ta-tUn^Dra 



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aaena./ nu,/~. 



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»ili. "nrtrsb iim^t,' ^ /iu 
culsidt c/ /JCi AljLaaau. ta 
draJild li^ in,l, dirictiiu^i 
aiA.d Mt Ai/t i'(A. rki oja^it' 



7 



Uka/' a /niau.l-i 



iy a. iattt 
il&i/cu.o t/S eiv(y%, core, ? 

folt'- (2u. aujicicary kUlV,- 

)-yii4,eI' /iS iZra.u/u, ou^ /'At 




Fig. 342 



PATTERN MAKING 



187 



a; 



^ 







lay out the two hexagons on either face. Bore a J in. 
hole through the head, and chisel. 

Varnish both wrenches black all over. 



Turn Buckle (Fig. 344) 

The ends of the turn buckle are to be tapped for h in. 
diameter iron rods, and show only j-^ in. diameter core- 
prints, to allow for cutting the threads. 

The core-prints are made If ins. long, the core-box 
2f ins. long, for a special reason; the cores are unsup- 
ported at one end, extending out into the mold, but 
the greater length and weight of the supported ends 
lying in the openings made by the core-prints will keep 
the cores in place. 



Such a core, extending out into the mold, and 
supported at one end only, is called a "balanced 
core." 

The opening through the turn buckle will leave its 
own core, if coped down half way; the whole pattern 
will have to be coped down half way. 

If many castings are to be made from this pattern, 
it should be parted along the line o-B (Hg. 344), to 
save the molder coping down each time the pattern is 
rammed up. 

Another way to save the molder cojjing down, is to 
make the pattern solid — not parted — and to prepare 
for it a special follow-board (the follow-board is the 
board on which the pattern and the flask are laid while 
ramming up). The surface of the follow-board is care- 
fully carved away, the pattern being let into, or sunk 
into, the board half way down. When the pattern is 
rammed up on such a board, turned over, and the board 
lifted off, half the pattern only is imbedded in the sand; 
the molder immediately rams up the cope without 
coping down, the follow-l)oard having saved him that 
labor. 

To Construct 

Saw outside shape on l)and saw, bore two « in. holes 
ly\- ins. from either end, and saw inside curves with 
keyhole saw. The inside and outside edges are to be 
shaped to form the arc of a circle with yf in. radius. 

Varnish pattern black, core-prints red, inside of core- 
box red, upper face only of core-box, blaclc 



188 



PATTERN JIAKING 



Note. — A j\ in. dowel will make the core-prints. 




s-^H-taS 



Fig. 344. Turn Buckle (Drawing of Pattern) 



PATTERN MAKING 



189 




Tace A /ate 4or /O "/a/Ae. 
Tc h /i^^edlycV- /ad 

i&ofd /ia.tliri*s tvcil 

Hol' sArii*^ cr tvArA. ., 

!!,<./- ti/ sAaJe, t/ 9/n.e^ 

sAciift* . 







Fig. 345 



190 



PATTERN MAKING 



Face Plate (Fig. 345) 

Finished all over. Construction 

Four or six segments may be used; six would be better 
if the pattern were larger, for fear of the shrinl^age of 
tlie wood in the large segments. 




Fig. 346 



Segments are laid out on a board, with dividers, the 
grain of the wood running as shown in Fig. 346. 

It is easier to mark out and saw one segment to shape, 
and use it as a pattern to mark out the others. 




In making a pattern for a pulley (Fig. 347) hexagonal 
segments are used to build up the rim, and the segments 



are so arranged that the joints in one layer are covered 
and strengthened by having the segments of the next 
layer directly over the joint. 

In gluing up the stock to make the face-plate pattern, 
see that the segments are made of lumber thick enough 
to make also the fillet under the large face (Fig. 348, x). 



'SUclc^»T ia/Ut iiulUit: 




Fig. 348 

The hub of the pattern and the core-print are turned 
from wood with the grain running the other way. The 
face made of segments should be fastened to the hub 
with two dowels and well glued. 

The pattern is best turned between centers on the 
lathe, a small block being glued to the face to take the 
live center. 

Onlj' scraping tools must be used on the faces and edge 
of the joart made of segments. 

^'arnish black, core-print red, inside core-box red, 
upper face only of core-box, black. 



PATTERN MAKING 



191 



Chambered Block (Fig. 351) 

Patterns lor Square Bars of Cast Iron or Steel 

Long bars of cast iron or steel are often required, also 
blocks of cast iron and steel. The patterns for these 
must have draft, if rammed up on any flat side, thereby 
making the casting out of square — untrue (Fig. 349). 



<2 caj/-i, 




Fig. 349 



Patterns for such castings should be jiarted tliago- 
nally (Fig. 350), as on the line a-B. No draft is re- 
quired, excejjting on ends, and the casting is square and 
true. 




Fio. 3.50 



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Construction (Figs. 352, 353) 

Glue together solidly a piece of \ in. thick and If in. 
thick pine. 

Rip the piece lengthwise from end to end on one of 
its diagonals. 

Plane the inside faces perfectly true, mark off center 
line lengthwise, glue in the dowels, as this is a parted 
pattern. 

Set the bevel to 45° and mark off sides of the block 
from the inside faces. 

Draft the ends clear to the parting (Fig. 352). 

In making the core-box, plane up two pieces, beveling 
one edge of each to 45° and glue them together (Fig. 353). 

Varnish pattern black, all over; core-prints red, in- 
side of core-box red, upper face only of box, black. 

The inside face of patterns — the parting — is sometimes 
varnished red and black to show the exact position of 



192 



PATTERN MAKING 



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PATTERN MAKING 



193 




Fig. 353 

the part cored out, which in this case would be the cham- 
ber and the open holes at the ends. 

The core-prints on the pattern are 1 in. long only, 
while the corresponding parts of the core-box are Ij ins. 
long. V/hy? 

Methods of Coring (Fig. 355) 

To core a horizontal hole through a solid casting, core- 
prints are glued on to pull from the parting without 
coping down (Fig. 356). The core is placed in posi- 
tion, and the holes left by the prints filled up and 
smoothed over with green sand. 

To core a recess in the edges of a casting, core-prints 
are added, large enough to overbalance the weight of 
the recess core (Fig. 356). In this case, in which the 
recesses are connected by a horizontal hole, the round 
core is filed to fit the recess cores, the three are fastened 
together, and slid down in place (Fig. 357). 

Core-box for Recess Core 

Since both recesses are the same size, one core-box 
will suffice (Fig. 354). 

The core-box must be nailed and glued at the two 



opposite corners only, the other corners remaining 
loose. 






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Fig. 3.54 



The loose print, marked a, is to be in place until the 
core is made in the box, then carefully pulled out, 
leaving a print for the core of the connecting hole. 



194 



PATTERN MAKING 



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PATTERN MAKING 



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196 



PATTERN MAKING 



This core is made in the other f in. core-box shown, 
cut off to the right length, 3j ins., and the ends filed 
to fit the print in the cores. The three cores are then 
fastened together and slid down in place (Fig. 357). 




Mark off center lines, and work to center lines 
throughout. 

Varnish the inside of small core-box red, upper face 
only black; the inside of large core-box red, including 
the drafted end of loose print, a; the upper and lower 
faces of large core-box black; also hole to take loose 
print, a; and that part of the print which goes in the 
hole; pattern, black; core-prints, red. 

Pipe Connections 

A tee pipe connection for 1 in. pipe (Fig. 358). 

The dimension, 1 in., is the diameter of the inside of 
the ]Mpe. 1 in. pipe is about -j^ in. thick, making 
the outside diameter of the pipe ly\ ins. 

.\s the outside of the pipe is threaded to screw into 
the teC; the three ends of the tee are cored to \\ ins. 




Fig. 358 

diameter, allowing -jfV in- all around for reaming the 
holes true, and xV in. all around (xV in. in all) for 
the depth of the thread. 

The tee is chambered out in the inside to the full 
diameter of the outside of the pij^e, lj% ins. (see 
core-box, Fig. 358). 



PATTERN MAKING 




To Construct 

Tee patterns are easily made, as the entire pattern 
may be turned at one time (Fig. 359). 

Staples or Dogs 

Often there is no time to glue together the pieces 
forming a parted pattern, so after the dowels are spaced 
off and glued in, the two halves are held together by 
means of staples, driven in at the ends (Fig. 360). 




Fig. 361 



Fig. .359 
These staples are so made that they bind more closely 

as they are driven in (Fig. 360). 

For large patterns staples are even stronger and safer 

than glue, and are made in the form of a staple plate 

(Fig. 361). 




The long jiart of the pattern is cut away, and the short 
piece mitered in (Fig. 362). 

Varnish pattern black, core-prints red, inside core- 
box red, upper face only of core-box, black. 



198 



I^ATTERN MAKING 




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PATTERN :MAKING 







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Pipe Connections 

Elbow for 1 ill. pipe (Fig. 363). 

Elbows and tees are so made, that if one is substituted 
for the other, the center lines, or the position and 
direction of the pipe, remain unchanged. 

The patterns must be made on the same center lines 
(the tee is shown in dotted lines, Fig. 363). 

A double pattern for the elbow is made that the core 
may not fall down at the turn. Very long core-prints 
would be nece.ssary to keep the core in place, so, since 
elbows are cast in great numbers, a double pattern is 
made, the core being held up by the connecting part at 
A (Fig. 363). 

Construction 

After fitting and gluing in the dowels, turn the core- 
prints and end parts in one piece (Fig. 364) ; turn also 
a short dowel on ends, to be glued and screwed into turn. 



The turn is to be glued up of four pieces with the 
grain running diagonally across the block, and screwed 
to a block of wood, fastened to the iron face plate of 
your lathe (Figs. 365, 366). After turning, saw the 




200 



PATTERN MAKING 



turns to the dotted lines, clamp them together care- 
fully, two and two, and bore for the f in. dowel in the 
ends. These are then glued in place, and further 
strengthened by a small wood screw (Fig. 367). 

The core-box is also turned from lumljer glued up so 



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that the grain runs diagonally across the block (Fig. 
368). 

As the turns of the core-box must be a perfect quarter 
circle, and as the parts A and B are not needed to make 
the core-bo.x, the saw kerf is taken out of these parts. 

After the straight parts of the box are worked out, 
and fitted and glued to the turns, the whole core-box is 
glued to a half-inch-thick block to strengthen it. 

Varnish pattern black, core-prints red, inside core- 
box red, upper face only of core-box, black. 

Pipe Connections 

A double pattern for a return bend, for 1 in. pipe 
(Fig. 369). 

This pattern is made double that one core will balance 
the other. 

To Construct 

Turn core-prints, ends and dowels all in one piece 
(Fig. 370). 

Since the whole half of the pattern is not required, 
the two blocks may be glued together to turn, and then 
sawed apart on the dotted lines, as shown. 

Since the core-box requires the whole half of the circle, 
the two parts may be fastened together with staples 
instead of glue, while turning, care being taken to 
screw the blocks firmly to the face plate (Fig. 370). 

The parts of the core-box, when fitted together, must 
lic glued on a stiff board. 

^'arnish pattern black, core-prints red, inside core- 
l)i)X red, upper face only of core-box, black. 



PATTERN MAKING 



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PATTERN MAKING 



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PATTERN :\rAKINO 



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Fir,. 372 



PATTERN MAKING 



205 



11. 



12. 



13. 
14. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 15. 

Pattern Making 

What fine wood is generally used for patterns? 17. 

Why? 
Should it be straight grained? 18. 

What is shrinkage, a flask, rappage, finish, draft, 19. 

cope, drag or nowel, a shrink rule? 
What is a mold? 20. 

Why is a mold divided? 

Why is the pattern divided? 21. 

What name is given to the place of dividing the 

mold and pattern? 
What is meant by draft on a pattern? Is the 22. 

amount of draft always the same? 
What further effort is made to have the pattern 23. 

pull from the sand easily? 
What is meant by finish on a pattern? 24. 

What is meant by shrinkage in metal? 
How is it allowed for in making a pattern? 25. 

How much allowance must be made on a pattern 

for shrinkage, when the casting is to be made 26. 

of iron? Brass? 27. 

How may the allowance be accurately measured in 28. 

making patterns? 29. 

Describe carefully a shrink rule. 

What is a rapping plate? 30. 

Make a sketch of a pattern, making allowance for 

draft, finish and shrinkage, the casting, when j 31. 

finished, to be 5Ax3ixU ins. 32. 



Explain how the pattern for the shifting fork 

might be rammed up if it was a solid pattern. 
What are fillets? Explain why they are used. 
Name three kinds of fillets, and tell where each 

may be used. 
How are leather fillets glued and pressed in? 
How is beeswax, when used as a fillet, pre.ssed into 

place? 
Explain carefully your reasons for drafting the pat- 
tern of the gibbed way toward the movable parts. 
Give an example of a pattern in which the upper 

core-print is loose and has much draft. Give 

other examples. 
Explain how a vertical core may be made to true 

itself, while the molder is placing on the cope. 
Could the brass bushingbe cast withoutabaked core? 
Would the method be good practice? 
Explain carefully just how to lay out a block of 

wood for a half core-box. 
Why will the try-square make a true templet for 

a perfect semi-circular core-box? 
What is a core-box plane? Explain how to use it. 
What is a parted pattern? 
How prepare the wood for such a pattern? 
Make a drawing for the core-box of the tool-po^t, 

and explain why it must come apart easily. 
Explain how the tool-post pattern is rammed up, 

removed and the core laid in place. 
Why is the core made so long? 
Are outside dimensions necessary for a core-box? 



206 



PATTERN .MAKING 



33. What is meant by reverse draft? 

34. What is meant by a pattern leaving its own core? 
3.5. What is a balanced core? 

36. Explain why the core-prints on the pattern for 

the turn buckle are so long. 

37. Explain how a follow-board may be made to save 

the labor of coping down. 

38. Name parts of machines, the i)atterns for which 

are always made in this way. 

39. Why is it sometimes necessary to construct pat- 

terns in this way? 

40. What is meant by gluing up a pattern in segments? 

41. Make a sketch showing how the segments are laid 

out on a board, ready to saw. 

42. Make a sketch showing two or three layers of seg- 

ments in position for a pulley rim. 

43. Why is the core-print on the face-plate pattern 

made tapering? 

44. Why are patterns for long, square bars of iron or 

steel parted diagonally? 



In the pattern (Figs. 355-356), why are the core- 
prints for the recesses made to extend out so far? 

The diameter 1 in. or 2 ins., as applied to iron pipe, 
is the measurement of what part of the pipe? 

How thick is 1 in. pipe, and why should the core- 
prints for the " tee " pattern be Ij ins. in diameter? 

Explain the simple way in which patterns for pipe 
connections are made. 

What are staples or dogs, and explain their use. 

How are tees and elbows similar? 

Why are double patterns of pipe connections made? 
Explain carefully. 

JIake a sketch showing how the " turn " in the pat- 
tern for the elbow is made. 

How is the turn fastened to the end pieces? 

j\Iake a sketch showing how the core-box is made. 

Why is the pattern for the "return bend" a double 
pattern? 

Make a sketch showing how the pattern is turned. 

How are the two halves for the core-box held to- 
gether while turning? Why not glued? 



HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS 



A perfectly dry room for manual training or home 
work is necessary, — dry floors and dry walls, that the 
tools may not rust, and so become useless; and the wood 
of which the benches are made, — the doors, the 
drawers, the tail vises, — swell with the dampness and 
stick. 

The lumber used must be kept in a dry, warm room 
to season, and to stay seasoned, or it will take up so 
much moisture as to make all work warp or shrink 
open at the joints. 

Benches 

Solid, heavy benches will be foimd more serviceable 
with a quick acting iron vise, when possible, and with 
a tail screw vise also. The tail screw vise is most neces- 
sary, holding the lumber at both ends, and enabling the 
worker to plane very thin boards true and smooth, as 
they lie on the flat, true, bench top. 

Gluing up the top of bench of narrow strips of wood 
prevents all warping and cracking. 

Drawer room, safely locked, should be provided for 
each boy for his work, in his own bench, thereby doing 
away with the cost of the unsightly lockers around the 
room, and the floor space occupied by them. The 
drawer serves to hold the individual edged tools— the 
plane-bits and chisels, — the boy's own tools, the keep- 
ing of which in perfect condition is his special pride 
and a good part of his training. 



Avoid all amateur tools. Buy the best tools of 
standard make. 

High grade tools are highly tempered, so provide a 
fine oil-stone with which to sharpen chisels and plane- 
bits; the usual stone provided is much too coarse. 

The habit of running to the grindstone to grind every 
day or every other day should be stopped. Grind 
square, with not too long a bevel, and sharpen on oil- 
stone only, every day, before beginning work. One 
grinding should last from a month and a half to two 
months. 

The short, tange, firmer chisels, with beveled edges, 
are more easily handled by small workers, the beveled 
edge enabling the pupil to chisel close up into corners 
or dovetails. 

Motors and Machinery 

If the manual training room is not too large, and 
there is no occasion for long shafting, the machines may 
be driven by directly connected motors, though this 
method has its disadvantages; the machines do not 
start so easily or quickly as those having a loose and 
tight pulley, and in the case of the band saw the in- 
structor must start the electrically driven saw every 
time, or let it run continuously, as the younger pupils 
cannot be trusted to do this; while the saw with the 
old-fashioned tight and loose pulley, with its shifting 
lever, may be started and stopped by any one at will. 



HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS 



A pony planer or single surfacer is almost a necessity 
for the use of teachers in getting out material. There 
is nothing but manual labor for the pupil in planing a 
one-ineh-thick board of hard wood — oak or sycamore 
• — down to a half-inch or less, especially since the 
pupil has received many weeks' training in planing 
true surfaces in carpentry before beginning cabinet 
work. 

The circular saw is of course part of the equipment 
for the use of teachers only. 

The band saw and scroll saws are perfectly safe for 
the pupils to use, and their educational value as tools 
beyond question, — their simple mechanical construction 
and the association of the pupil with such simple power- 
driven machines — the necessity of curved work in the 
course, — in cabinet making and pattern making, — and 
the training in following the marked curved and straight 
lines with the saw. 

Truing devices for grindstones enable the instructor 
to keep the stones perfectly true and perfectly sharp, 
thereby aiding the amateurs to keep their plane-bits 
and chisels in proper condition. 

The shaving exhauster not only carries away the 
shavings, but the fine dust from the planer and the 
circular and band saws, keeping the air of the room 
quite pure and free from dust. 

The turning shop should have one large motor to 
drive the main and line shafts, and each lathe have its 
countershaft with loose and tight pulleys, — easily con- 
trolled by the pupils. 



Several grindstones with truing devices are necessary 
in this shop. 

The convenient tool case at the end of each lathe 
contains drawers for the use of each pupil, serving to 
hold his work and his individual tools, also a tool drawer 
to hold the general tools and the shorter rests and face 
plates, — making each lathe complete in itself, — the pupil 
finding it unnecessary to leave his lathe to go to the 
tool room. 

Tool Room Supplies 

Hand screws should be greased with a mixture of 
equal parts of tallow and beeswax. To prepare the 
mixture, melt it in a tall tin can, immersed in boiling 
water (it is dangerous to melt the wax over a fire). 
Dip the screws in the hot mixture, and swab the nuts 
in the jaws with a cloth tied around a piece of dowel 
rod, and dipped in the grease. When the hand screws 
are put together again, any surplus wax may be saved 
by screwing up and unscrewing the hand .screw once or 
twice, the wax collecting on the jaw. 

Files 

The round-edge 9 in. mill files are necessary to file 
the large teeth of the rip saws in the circular saw. The 
saw is liable to crack at the base of the teeth if filed 
with a square-edged file. 

The 7 in. slim taper is a triangular file and is large 
enough to have its corners almost round, and so serves 
for the smaller teeth of the cross-cut circular saw. The 



HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS 



209 



4 in. slim taper is necessary to file the fine teeth in the 
back saws, which the 7 in. file would almost cut away. 

Belt Repairing 

Wire lacing is preferable, holding better and longer 
than rawhide, and without the noise of the belt hooks. 
Belt hooks are most convenient when a heavy belt has 
to be repaired in a hurry. 

Very fast running belts should be made endless, 
that is, cut 4 ins. or 6 ins. longer than necessary, the 
ends beveled down with a sharp plane, lapped over 
and glued together. Warm two short boards in the 
heating oven, apply the glue, tack the belt to one board, 
lay on the other, and screw together with hand screws. 

Belt men merely rub the two ends together, without 
hand screws — a poor method for amateurs. 

A good quality of belt grease or dressing is most 
necessary. A hquid dressing is preferable, as it makes 
the belt more phable and soft, by soaking in, than a 
surface coating of stick dressing (belt dressing is also 
made in sticks, to be held against the belt while running). 

The belt should be carefully cleaned by scraping with 
the sharp side of a chisel before applying the dressing. 
Brush the dressing on with a good brush evenly and 
not too thick. If possible do not use the belt for sev- 
eral hours after dressing, though small narrow belts 
may be used immediately. 

Lumber 

First, clear lumber is altogether economical, the 
waste on account of knots, sap, narrow boards, in the 



poorer grades, more than making up for the difference 
in cost. White pine stumpage may be ordered "first 
clear," and will be wide, clear lumber, but short in 
length — only 3 or 4 ft. — and costs but half or two- 
thirds regular length — 14 to 16 ft. 

The abbreviation s2s means smooth, or plane, or size 
two sides, making 1 in. thick lumber only | in. thick; 
1} in. lumber, IJ ins. thick; 2 in. lumber If ins. thick. 

Finishing Wood 

The educational value of a careful finishing (varnish- 
ing) of the cabinet work and pattern work is without 
question. As much care and energy and thoughtful- 
ness and patience are required to apply the coats dex- 
terously, to rub down, to polish the piece, as to make it. 
A beautiful piece or pattern, no matter how well 
made, is only half completed without the beautifying, 
preserving varni.sh or wa.x. The smooth coats on the 
pattern are as necessary to the preserving of the pattern 
as they are a help to the molder in getting the pattern 
out of the sand, — the unfinished exercise, in either case, 
is the exercise of no utility, because of its incomplete- 
ness. 

If making the exercise is educational in a constructive 
way, preserving it and beautifying it are educational 
from a standpoint of completeness, utility and artistic 
influence. 

Brushes, Varnish, Oils 

The two quill, split quill pointed pencils (brushes) 
are made of soft camel's hair, incased in quills, — one 



210 



HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS 



cjuill, two quills, three quills, according to size wanted, 
for use in varnishing patterns, as they flow a very 
smooth coat. A handle is made for these brushes by 
cutting the quills open at the top, inserting a small 
\ in. dowel 6 or 8 ins. long, and winding the quills to the 
dowel with a strong, light cord. 

The artists' round bristle brushes are useful in- gluing 
the silk to the paper, and the paper to the boxes, in 
lining the glove boxes. 

Select the piano finish copal rubbing varnish by 
samjjle, trying several kinds on thin boards prepared 
for the purpose. A varnish that flows smoothly, has 
a good body, dries hard in thirty-six or forty-eight 
hours, will do; a quick drying varnish will crack soon, 
and a slow drying varnish takes too long for manual 
training work, though it lasts longer without cracking. 

The pure grain alcohol shellac varnish must be de- 
livered in glass bottles, with rubber corks, as the varnish 
corrodes tin cans and is soon discolored, and the alcohol 
evaporates through a cork stopper. 

Wood alcohol shellac varnish is not worth buying. 
The orange shellac is the unbleached shellac, and when 
cut or dissolved by pure grain alcohol makes a dark 
yellow or brown shellac varnish, used to varnish pat- 
terns, being mixed with lamp black to make the black 
varnish, and with Chinese vermilion, to make the red 
varnish for the core-prints and core-boxes. 

Beeswax, aside from its use with tallow to wax or 
grease hand screws, is much used in pattern work for 
fillets — (filling corners). Apply it by pressing it into 



the corners with a carving chisel or gouge heated in hot 
water. Tin cups are very convenient for varnish cups, 
since they are so cheap that they may be thrown away 
when the varnish collects on the sides — or they are no 
longer needed. Cleaning varnish cups is costly economy 
when the cost of alcohol or turpentine is considered. 

Glass bottles with rubber stoppers are required to 
hold the spirit stains — alcohol and red sanders; the oil 
stains — the diluted bichromate and water; alcohol and 
turpentine, supplies of which must be kept at the varnish 
table. 

Varnish cans incased in wood are not likely to be 
punctured or bent, and will last for years. 

Wood filler and wax are ordered in one or two pound 
cans because they both dry out if not used soon after 
opening, though the cans recently delivered have remov- 
able tin covers, which are air-tight. 

Glue should be soaked overnight, just covered with 
water or less. Great quantities of glue should not be 
cooked at one time, but rather small quantities, and 
the pots kept clean by scraping off the old glue around 
the edges. 

Heating or warming oven. — A coil of pipes heated 
with steam and covered with a large box having a con- 
venient door is a most necessary part of the outfit for 
a woodshop or any factory where gluing is done. 

All wood, ready to glue, should be heated or warmed 
slightly, in order that the glue may not chill and lie in 
a thick coating between the two pieces, but may enter 
well up into the pores of the wood. 



INDEX— EQUIPMENT (Page 7) 



A PAGE 

Alcohol 11 

B 

Rack saw 7, 8 

Bailey iron planes. No. 3 & No. 5 7 

Band saw 8,12 

Band saw blades 10 

Bearings 8 

Beeswax 11 

Belt grease 9 

Belt hooks 9 

Belting 8.9.12 

Belt lacing 9 

Belt punch 9 

Belt repairing 9 

Benches 7 

Bench hook 7 

Bevel 7 

Bit for brace 9 

Bit, gimlet 9 

Boring machine 8 

Brace, Barber's 7. 8 

Erad-awl 10 

Brass butts (hinges) 10 

Bristle brushes 11 

Brush 7.8 

Brushes 11 

C 

Cabinet scraper 10 

Calipers, inside, outside 8 

Camel's-hair brushes 11 

Caps for planes 10 

Carpenter's square 10 

Cheese cloth 11 

Chisel 8 

Circular saw 8,12 

Clamps 9 

Clamp screws 9 

Clutches 9 

Copal rubbing varnish 11 

Cost of benches 7 

Cotton batting 11 

Countersink 9 

Cross-cut saw 7 

Cupboard door swings 7 

I> 

Dividers J7.^ 

Double benches 7. 1- 

Double irons. No. 3 .'^- No. 5 S 

Dowel rods 10 

Drawers 7,12 



Edged tools 7 i Letters 10 

Emerv grinder 8. 9, 12 | Level 10 

Equipment 7 Linseed oil 11 

M 

Machine bolts H 

Machinery 8, 9 

Mallet 7 

Mill bastard files 9 

Monkey wrench 9 

Motors 8.9.12 

N 

Nail sets 10 



Felloe webs 10 

Felt 11 

Figures 10 

, Files 9 

Firmer gouges 10 

Fitch varnish brushes 11 

I Flat nosed pliers 9 

j Fox trimmer 8 

Frogs for planes 10 



Gas pliers 

Gauge 

General tools 7, 

Glass bottles 

Glue brushes 

Glue. Cooper's IX 

Glue lieater 8, 

Glue pot 

Gouge 

Grindstones 8, 9. 



Oak.... 
Oil can. 
Oil slipstone. 



11 I Oils 11 



Oil stain. 
Oil-stone. . . . 
Orange sheila 



Paring gouges 

Pattern makers' knive 
Pattern makers' rules 



H 



Hack sav 

Hack-saw blades 10 

Half-round files 9 

Hammer 7 i 

Handles for planes 10 ' 

Hangers 8.9. 12 

Hand planer or jointer 8 ^ 

Hand screws 9 

Head stock spindle 8 

Hemp rope 10 

I 

Individual tools 7, 12 



Pipe wrench 

Planer knife grinder. 

Plane stock 

Pliers 

Pockets to hold saws 

Poplar 

Pulleys 

Pumice stone 



Q 

Quill brushes 11 



R 



Jointer 

K 

Knives for pattern makers. 



Ratchet brace. 

Rawhide belt lacing 

Repairs for planes 

Rip saw 

Rotten stone -■ ■ • 

Round nose scraping chisels. 
Rules 



Ladders 

Lag bolts . . . 
Lamp black. 



I. 



Sandpaper 

Scraping chisels 

Screw driver 7, 

Screws, flathead, bright 



PAGE 

Scroll saw 8 

Scroll saws 10 

Set screws 9 

Shafting 8.9,12 

Shaving exhauster 8 

Shaving separator 8 

Shellac varnish 11 

Skew chisels 8 

Sliding door 7 

Slim taper files 9 

Spear point scraping chisel 8 

Split quill brushes 11 

Spoke shaves 10 

Sponges 11 

Starting box for motor 8, 9, 12 

Steel bar carpenters' clamps. ... 9 

Steel figures 10 

Steel letters 10 

Step ladders 10 

Supplies 10 

Surfacer or planer 8 

"S" wrenches 9 

Sycamore 10 

T 

Tail screw vise 7, 12 

Tape line 10 

Tin cups for varnish 11 

Tole'svise 7,12 

Tool eases 8. 12 

Tops of benches glued up 7 

Truing devices 8. 9, 1 2 

Try-square 7 

Turning lathe 8. 9, 12 

Turpentine 11 

V 

Varnish 11 

Varnish cans , 11 

Vermilion 11 

W 

Water emery grinder 9, 12 

Wax polish 11 

White pine 10 

White pine resawed 10 

Wire brads 11 

Wire nails 11 

Wire lacing outfit 9 

Wiring of motor 8, 9 

Wood filler U 

Wrenches 9 

Y 

Yellow poplar 10 



INDEX— TREES (Page 18) 



A PAGE 

Acorns of oak 21 , 22 

Agricultural implements, oak... 22 

B 

Bark of sycamore 23 

Birch 25 

Birch bark 25,26 

Birch, cost 26 

Boat building poplar 20 

Birds' eyes in maple 24 

Buckets, birch-bark 25 

Butcher blocks, sycamore 23 

Button ball of sycamore 23 

C 

Cabinet work, oak, sycamore. 22, 23 

Canoes, birch-bark 25 

Carpentry, pine 18 

Carriage bodies, poplar 20 

Carvings, poplar 20 

Cooperage, oak 22 

Cones of white pine 18 

Construction, pine, oak 18 

Cordage, birch-bark 25 

Curls in maple 24 

D 

Pog-wood, sour gum 19 

Dug out canoes 20 

F 

Flooring, maple 24 

Furniture, gum 19 

Furniture, oak 22 

Furniture, sycamore 23 

Furniture, maple 24 

G 

Gum 19 

Gum costs 20 

Gum resembles walnut 19 

Gum, size of tree 19 

Gum veneers, table legs, wood 

turning, shingles, woudeti ware 19 

Hard maple, sugar maple 24 

Heart wood of birch 25, 26 

Heart wood, gum 19 

Heart wood, maple 24, 25 



PAGE 

Heart wood, oak 21, 22, 23 

Heart wood, pine 18 

Heart wood, poplar 20 

Heart wood, sycamore 23 

House building, oak 20 

Houses covered, birch-bark 25 



Indians used birch bark for 

canoes, tents, troughs, buckets 25 

Indians used poplar for canoes. . 20 

Interior finish, sycamore 23 

Interior finish, maple 25 

Interior finish, birch 26 

K 

Keys of maple 24, 25 

Knees, oak 23 

I. 

Leaves alternate, gum 19 

Leaves indeterminate, white pine 18 

Leaves live oak, no indentations 21 

Leaves of birch, alternate, edges 
toothed 25 

Leaves of maple, opposite, edges 
toothed 24 

Leaves of oak, alternate, edges 
lobed 20 

Leaves of sycamore, alternate, 
edges toothed 23 

Leaves of white pine, indeter- 
minate 18 

Leaves of yellow poplar, alter- 
nate, edges lobed 20 

Liquid amber, sweet gum 19 

M 

Maple, cost 25 

Maple, ceiling, flooring, paneling, 
furniture, school supplies, shoe 

lasts, shoe pegs 24 

Maple grows 24 

Matches, pine 18 

Me.lullary rays, oak 20, 21, 22 

Medullary rays, sycamore 23 

O 

Oak 20 

Oak, cost 23 



PAGE 

Oak leaves, alternate, edges 

lobed 20 

Oak. ship-building, cooperage, 
cabi net work , rail way ties, 

agricultural implements.. 21, 22, 23 

Oak, standard of comparison .... 21 

Oak, used for house and ship- 
building long ago 20 

P 

Paper pulp, birch 25 

Pegs, maple, birch 24, 25 

Poplar, cost 20 

Poplar, grows 20 

Poplar, shingles, boat-buihliug, 
pumps, wooden ware, carriage 

bodies 20 

Poplar, tulip tree, white wood. . 20 

Pumps, poplar 20 

Q 

Quarter sawed oak, sycamore. 21, 23 

R 

Railway ties, oak 22 

Rays or lights in oak, sycamore 21, 23 

Red birch like mahogany 26 

Rollers, gum 19 

Ropes, birch-bark 25 

S 

Sap wood, birch 25 

Sap wood, gum 19 

Sap wood, maple 24 

Sap wood, oak 21, 22 

Sap wood, pine 18 

Sap wood, poplar 20 

Sap wood, sycamore 23 

Shingles, gum 19 

Shingles. Doplar 20 

Ship-building, oak 20, 23 

Shoe lasts, maple 24 

Shoe lasts, birch 25 

Shoe pegs, maple 24 

Silver maple, soft maple 24 

Sour gum has black sour drupes 19 

Spars, pine 18 

Spicy birch 26 

Star-Uke leaves on sweet gum. . . 19 



PAGE 

Sugar 24 

Sugar maple 24 

Sweet gum has round balls.... 19 

Sweet gum, use 19 

Sycamore, button ball tree, but- 
ton wood 23 

Sycamore, cost 23 

Sycamore, furniture, cabinet 
work, butcher blocks, ox- 
yokes 23 

T 

Table legs, gum 19 

Tannin in oak 21 , 22 

Tents, birch-bark 25 

Tobacco boxes, sycamore 23 

Troughs, birch-bark 25 

Tulip-shaped flowers 20 

TuUp wood 20 

Turned work, maple 25 

Turned work, gum 19 

Type, maple 24 

V 

Utensils, birch-bark 25 

V 

Vehicles, maple 24 

Veneers, gum 19 

Veneers, maple 24 

W 

Wagon hubs, gum 19 

Water-tight bark of birch 25 

Weight of live oak 21 

Wheels, oak 22 

White pine, cost, easy working 
qualities, for pattern making, 
grows, hght weight, most use- 
ful, size of trees, very plentiful 18 

White wood 20 

Wings of maple seeds 24 

Witch-hazel familv, sweet gum. . 19 

Wooden tvi)e, maple 24 

Wooden ware, gum 19 

Wooden ware, poplar 20 

Wooden ware, maple 25 

Wooden ware, birch 26 

Wood turning, gum 19 

Wood turning, maple 25 



INDEX— WOOD (Page 27) 



Air-seasoned 32, 33 

Aluminum 30 

Animal life depends on 30 

Annular ducts 28 

Annual rings 28, 34, 35 

Apple tree 30 

Artificial drying : 32, 33 

Ash 33 

Ashes 30, 32 



B 

Bark or rind 28 

Bastard lumber 35 

Bast cells 28 

Beams 34 

Beech 31 

Bird's-eyes 33 

Birch 27,31,33 

Board foot 34 

Board measure 34 

Boards 34 

Box tree 31 

Box-wood 30 

Branches of tree 31 



Calcium 

Cambium layer... 

Carbon 

Carbonic acid gas. 
Carbon dioxide. . . 

Carpentry 

Carriage builder. . . 

Catalpa 

Cedar . 



Cells 27.28 

Cellular pith 27 

Cellulose 31 

Checks or cracks in wood 32 

Chemical matter food 29 

Cherry 27,31,34 

Chlorophyll 30 

Clear lumber 34 

Chlorine 30 

Combustion of wood 31 

Conifers 33 

Cooper 27 

Cordage 2S 

Cork tree 31 

Corky envelope 28 

Crown of tree 31 

Cross-grained wood 33 

Cultivation 30 

Curly grain 33 



Cutting of trees 32 

Cypress 33 



I) 

Decomposes 30 

Density of wood 30 

Digested food 30 

Dormant buds 31 , 33 

Dotted <lucts 28,29 

Dressed lumber 34 

Drying of wood 32, 33 

Dry kiln 32,33 

Dry wood takes uj) moisture ... 33 
Ducts 28,29 



E 

Earthy parts 30 

Ebony 31 

Elder tree 31 

Epidermis 28,29 

Essential elements 30 



Face measure 34 

Fence boards 34 

Fence posts 32 

Fertilization 31 

Fibrous bark 28,29 

Fields plowed and harrowed .... 30 

Fissures 30 



Flax 28 

Food of tree 29 

Fruit stones 31 

Furniture maker 27 



G 

Georgia pine 33 

Grain of wood 29, .■J2, 33 

Green bark 28 

Growth of tree 31 

Gum 33,34 



Heart woot 
Heavy woo 

Hemp 

Hickory. . . 
Hydrogen . 



Inner bark 2,8,29 

Insoluble comimunds 30 

Iron 30 

J 

Joints 27 

Joists 33 

K 

Kiln 32,33 

Knots 31 

L 

Lath 34 

Layer of wood 27 

Leaves 28,29,30,31 

Lights or rays 28, 29, 32, 34 

Limbs or branches 29, 31 

Linen 28 

Live part of tree 28 

Lumber 34 

M 

Magnesium 30 

Mahogany 27, 31, 34 

Maple 27,28,30,31 

Measurement of lumber 34 

Medulla 27 

Medullary rays 28, 29, 32, 34 

Medullary rays shrink vertically. 32 

Medullary sheath 28 

Mining of wood 34 

Mineral compounds 29 

Mineral materials changed into 

food 30 

Mineral matter 29, 30 

N 

Normal hmb 31 

Nitrogen 30 

O 

Oak 27,31.32,33,34 

Organic 30 

Outer bark 2S, 29 

Oxygen 30 

P 

Paper from wood pulp 34 

Pears 31 

Phosphorus 30 

Pickets 34 

; Pine 27,33,34 

213 



Piles 34 

Pitch 34 

Pith 27,28,29,31 

Pith rays 29 

Planks 34 

Plant hfe 27 .30 

Pomegranate 31 

Poplar 31,. 33 

Potassium 30 

Potassium nitrate 30 

Prisms of wood 30 

Q 

Quarter sawed lumber 34 

B 

Rafts of logs 33 

Railroad ties 32 

Rays 29 

Resin 34 

Rind 28 

Root hairs 29 

Rootlets 29 

Roots 29 

Running foot 34 

S 

Sap 29 

Sap wood 28 

Sectional view 27, 28 

Seasoning wood 32, 33 

Shingles 34 

Shingle maker 27 

Shrinkage 32 

Sihcon 30 

Sized lumber 34 

Soil 30 

Sold by bundle 34 

Sold by piece 34 

Sold by pound 34 

Soluble compounds 30 

Soluble in water 30 

Specific gravity 31 

Spiral ducts 28 

Spiral vessels 2S 

Splitting wood 32 

Spring wood 28, 32, 35 

Spruce 33 

Starch _ 30 

Steam heated room 32, 33 

Stems 27 

Stiffness of wood 33 

Still 34 

Strains 32 

Structure of plants 27 

Studs 34 



214 



INDEX— WOOD 



PACE 

Sulphur 30 

Summer wood 2S, 32, 35 

Sun 29,30 

Surfaced lumber 34 

Sycamore 27. 31, 34 

T 

Tannin 34 

Telegraph poles 33 i 



Telephone poles 33 

Timber, joists and beuins 34 

Tissues 27 

Trunk of tree 29. 31 

Turpentine 34 

Twisted grain 33 

U 

Undeveloped buds 31 



V PAGE 

Value of wood 34 

Veneers 34 

W 

Wagon maker 27 

Walnut 27 

Warping of wood 32. 34, 35 

Water 29,30,32 



Wavy grain 

White pine 27.31,33, 

Wood 

Wood fibers made into ijulp. . . . 
Wood, lack of knowledge of ... . 

Wood wasted 

Wood widely useful 

Woody fibers multiplied 

Woody tissue 27, 



INDEX— CARPENTRY (Page 38) 



Accurate gauge line is light 48 

B 

Back saw 40. 41, 55, 63 

Back saw cuts narrow kerf 40 

Back saw, 12 points to 1 inch. . * 40 

Barbed nails 52 

Bead 45 

Bench hook 41, 54 

Bench top 70 

Bend off feather edge 42 

Bevel or grind 41 

Bevel, T bevel 63 

Bevel off corner 45 

Blind uiitered dovetail 62 

Board measure 50 

Brad-awl 53 

Breaker, use 42 

C 

Cabinet woods 45 

Chamfered edges 66 

Chamfer ofT corners 45 

Chamfers marked with lead pen- 

^^«1 54,67 

Chatters 45 

Chisel, 

41, 47, 55, 56, 58, 60, 67, 68, 69. 70 

Cleats 50,51 

Corner half-lap joint 57 

Cover of plane-bit, use 42 

Cross-cut saw 38 

Cross-cut saw filing 38 

Cross-cut saw tooth inclines for- 
ward .38 

Curly or cross-grained wood 42 

Cut nails 52 

D 

Dimension lines 46. 50 

Dimensions 47 49 

Dovetail 58, 59. 61 i 62 

Doweled joints 63. 64 

Drawer dovetail 62 

F 

Face of plane or sole 45 

Feather edge 41, 42, 45 



File held horizontally 39 

Following the grain 42, 68 



Gauge from you 48 

Gauge sharp 40, 43 

Gaugmg, practice in 48 

Glue 70 

Grindstone 41 

H 

Half-lap dovetail 58 

Half-lap joint 57 

Half-lap miter fii 

Hat pins 67.68 

Hat rack strip 66 

Heavy gauge hue 48 

Heel of saw 39 

Hold plane-bit or chisel with both 

hands to sharpen 41 

Hooks and eyes 50, 53 

In wind 43 

Iron nails, blunt points 52 



Jack plane 43 

Joint edge of saw .SS 

Joints 57, 58, 59, 60. 61, 62 



Kerf considered and measured . 38,39 

Kerf of saw 38 

Keyed tenon 59 

Knife acro.ss the grain 40. 49 

Knife edge on front of cross-cut 

sawtooth 39 

Knife line, 

40, 47, 54, 55, 56. 60, 63, 67, 68, 69 

I, 

Length of grind or bevel 41 

Light gauge hne 40, 48 

M 

Middle half-lap joint 57 

Mortise and tenon joint ... 59 

Mortises. . 54, 56, 59, 60, 61 , 64. 66 67 



,,.,,.. N PAGE 

Nail driving 49. 50 

Nails, size shown 52 

O 

Oil-stone 39, 41 

P 

Paddle for glue 70 

Paper on bench 70 

Pare 55. 56. 58, 60 

Pitch of tooth ,38. "t) 

Plane-bit 41, 42, 4.'i 

Plane on top of grain ' 4 ; 

Plane set out of true is worthless 4 1 

Plane with the grain 4.i 

Plane wood in one piece. . . 46. 57, 68 

Points of dividers S3, 69 

Positions of plane 43. 44 

Practice in sawing 40. 41 

R 

Reverse direction of plane 44 

Rip saw 39,40 

Rip saw. 8 points to 1 inch 40 

Ril3 saw filing 40 

Rip saw separates fibers 39 

Rip saw tooth no slant or pitch. . 39 
Rounded center of plane-bit over 

high edge 44 

Rounding plane-bitonoil-stone.41, 42 

S 

Safe side of grindstone 41 

Same set of gauge 54. 66 

Sandpaper 61, 70 

Sandpaper smooths surface but 

rounds over edges 51 

Saw filing 39, 40 

Sawing hard wood tenons 60, 63 

Saw run off line 39 

Screw eyes 70 

Setting gauge with rule 48 

Setting saws 38, 39 

Setting the plane 42, 43 

Shakes in wood 40 

Sharpening on oil-stone 41 , 42 

Shearing cut 40, 56 



ou ... '■'^'^E 

bhow why pitch on saw tooth is 

necessary 33 

Sight along face of plane to see 

^,.bit...... 42,43 

Sight sticks 43 

Silky shavings 43 49 

Silky shavings show skillful worker' 45 

Slip morti.se and tenon 59, 61 

Smooth plane 43 

Standard wire gauge 52 53 

Steel .square 43. 44 

■"'"'■'- I'lll 46,50 

.-( I ML' hi L't;Hned wood 42 

~ ' I I '-el on knife blade 42 

.-Mirf:n r iliig into 42 

T 

Table leg joint, dowel and tenon 64 

Teeth cut in saw blade 38, 39 

Temper of tool 41 

Tenon or tongue 59, 60 

Ten points to 1 inch, cross-cut saw 39 

Throat of plane 43 

Through mortise and tenon 60 

Toe of plane, front end 42 

To chisel chamfers 55, 67, 68 

To chisel shoulders 56. 68. 69 

Tongue and groove joint 59. 61 

To plane a true surface 43 

To plane edges of two or more 

^ pieces 48,51 

To plane edges square 44 

To plane end chamfers 67, 68 

To plane ends 44 

To plane to dimensions 49 

To prove a true surface 43 

W 

Wedged tenon 59 

Whet off feather edge 42 

Whittling wood 42 

Wire brads 52 

Wire edge 39 

Wire nails and brads better than 

cut nails 52 

Wire nails sharp 52 

Wire nails, size shown 52 

Wood screws, bow .sold 53 

Wood screws, size shown 53 



INDEX— WOOD TURNING (Page 74) 



of outline 89 

Acute angle point 82, 83, 84 

Approximate center 85 

Askew 80 

Automatically making quarter 
circles 85 

B • 

Back out of <langer 86 

Balanced 78 

Beads 81,83 

Bed of lathe 74 

Belt 75, 76. 77. 78, 79, 86 

Belt hooks 79 

Belt punch 79 

Bench hook 93 

Bench vise 95 

Beveling ends of belts 78 

Box 74.75 

Brushed 77 

Burn 74,87 

Burn wood 78. 93. 99 

Bushing 76 



Caliper 86 

Caliper directions 86 

Cap 74.77 

Cement for belt 78 

Centered 88 

Centers sawed off 93 

Centrifugal force 78 

Chamber for grease 76 

Char or burn wood 74 

Chopped out 83 

Chuck 92 

Chucking 92 

Clamp lever 74 

Cleaned 77 

Click of belt hooks 79 

Concave curves 84 

Conduct in turning shop 103 

Cone of lathe 74 

Cone puUev 75 

..103 

. . 76 



Cutting off 87 

Cutting tools, skews and gouges. 79 
Cylinder 86 



Dead center 74. 75 

Dead spindle 74 

Devices 77 

Diagonals 85 

Diameter 74, 75 

Dimension hnes 87 

Directions for using gouge 80 

Directions for using skew 81 

Distracting pupils* attention. . . . 103 

Draw temper 78 

Driving pulley 75, 77 

E 

Elements 89 



Face plate 90 

Face-plate work 89, 90 

Feather edge 80 

Filled 93.96,99 

Follow the grain 89 

Form or templet 89, 92 

Friction 74 

Fulcrum of lever 83 

G 

Gash 79 

Gavel 94 

General tools 77 

Glue 78.89.102 

Gouge 79.84 

76 



Gri 



'- cup. 



76 



Grind 79. 80. 81 . 82, 84, 85 

Grind at right angles 84. 85. 87 



Cr.iss lace 78,79 

Cross wire 78,79 

Cup center 74, 75 



H 

Half circles 84 

Hammer 77 

Hand wheel 74 

Hanger 75 

Hanlw.M.d 78 

H,-:it.nK "f l""l 78.87 

Head st...k 74.75 

Head slock cone 74,75 

Hide 78 

Hip 80 

Hollows 84 



Hooked together 78, 79 

Hot box 78 

Hub 76 



Individual tools 77 

Interfering with pupils 103 



Knife S3 

I. 

Laced 78 

Laj) over 78 

Large skew 80, 81 

Lateral motion 74 

Lathe tools 79 

Leg of lathe 75 

Line shaft 74 

Lips of small gouge 84 

Live center 74 

Live center spurs 74, 85, 87 

Live spindle 74 

Long body of belt hook 79 

Loosening the belt 76 

Loose pulley 75. 76, 77 

Lower slide of rest 74 

M 

Machine 77 

Maple, bird's-eve or curlv 93 

Metal hooks 78. 79 

Monkey wrench 77 

More wood at live center 87 

N 

Nature of wood 78 

Noisy belt hooks 79 

Nose of gouge 79, 84 



Oak. 

Obtuse angle'point 81, 82, 83 

Octagonal ring 92 

Oil. 



77 

Oil cup 74.76,77 

Oiled wood 74, 85 

Oiling loose pulley 76, 77 

Oil may penetrate 85 

Opening for small gouge 84 



Patterns 89 

Piece of wood to pound 77 

Pin cushion and tray 93, 96 



Pine 78,92 

Pin tray 93, 96 

Piston 76 

Planed true 74 

Point center 74 

Posl. 74 

Pound apart 77 

Pounding 77 

Power 74 

Precious material 93 

Projecting arm 76 

Pulled from the ladder 103 

Pulley 74,92,95 

Pulley, loose, tight 76, 76, 77 

Punched 79 

Pushing friction 74 

Q 

Quarter-inch scraping tool 87 

R 

Raw hide belt lacing 78. 79 

Reduce speed of lathe for large 

diameters 78 

Retluce speed of lathe to sand- 
paper, fill, or wax 96. 99 

Required diameter 87 

Rest 74, 80. 81. 83. 86, 90 

Rest parallel 90 

Revolutions per minute 75, 86 

Revolving wood 74 

Right angles 84, 85, 87 

Ring made in wood by carpenter. 86 

Rings 87 

Riveted 78 

Rolled over gouge 80. 84 

Rosettes 89,95 

Roughing-out tool 79 

Rough stock 78 

Round ring 92 

Rubbing 80 

Rub filler in wood 96 

Run 82 



Sandpaper will burn wootl 93, 99 

Sandpapered 82 

Saw off corners 90 

Scrape off surfaces 91 

Scrape with the grain 89 

Scraping tools 89, 90 

Scraping tools held horizontally. 91 

Screwdriver 77 

Screw wood to face plate 91 



INDEX— WOOD TURNING 



PAGE 

Sectional view gg 

Segments 74 

Set nut ;. oft 

Set rest before starting |^ 

Set screw 74 75 

Shaft...... '90 

Shallow hole. an 

Shapes gauged by eye | 

Shapes transferred gg 

Shearing out 7^ 

Shears..... 76 

Shifting forks ;.. 7g 

Shifting lever '■'• 7g 

Shifting rod.... ■ ■ 

Short ends of hook ^^ 

Short lap belt Aq gj 

Skew — 

Slack belt.,.. • „^ 

Slanting chisel 7g 

Slanting edge 7g 

Slanting way 74 

Slide rest 79 

Slip stone 79 

Slit 



PAG 

Small knife blade ' 

Small skew. . . . ... ■ „ 

Smooth and pohsh. 9 

Smooth plane in wood turmng. . . » 

Soft iron ■j 

Soft wood . 

Spindle clamp _. '. 

Speed lathe 7S 

Speed of lathe ' , ! 

Spindle, live, dead ^^'^^ 

Sphere' round across tlie grain . . 9.3 

Sphere round lengthwise «•» 

Split box....... ■ 7g 

Spout of oil can 7^ 

Spur center 7^ 

Spurs gg 

Square grooves. „, 

Square hole for chuck ^ 

Square ring.. ^. ;;• g7 

Square shoulder ^^ 

Steel...... • 76 

Stick tight... ..■■ ,03 

Stick to throw belts ^"'^ 



PAGE 

Stocking darners „„ 

Stopping of motor '^g 

Stop collar. ... • ■ 70 

Stretching of belts 

T 

74 

Tail spindle 74 

Tail stock 74 

Tail stock clamp ^q 

Tangent. ■ ■ ■ 74 

Tapering hve center ^^ 

Tee-rest 

Tee way.. . • • ■ 7g gj 

1 Temper of tool '"■ gj 

Templet or form li 

Threaded spindle gg 

I Throwing heavy belts ^^^ 

I Tie rawhide 75 7g 

Tight pulley... §5 

To center wood. ■ • -g. g7 

Tool at right angles 84. »»• »' 

Tool drawer... '"■!-' 

I To scrape beads 

1 To scrape hollows 



217 



PAGE 

Try-square : ,■ ' ' (;•"> 

Turning work not sandpapered . . 6- 

U 

,r J » ... 96 

Under cut 7. 

Upper slide 



W 

Washer "'77 

^S^wWood;;.v.;:::::::'93;96,99 

Ways , Q9 QE 

Webbed pulley pattern q, 'ino 

White maple 7s 7q 

Wire lacing. "■ iS 

Wood to pound io'oA qq 

Wood filler 93.96,99 

Wood turmng 



INDEX— CABINET MAKING (Page 108) 



B PAGE 

Bare hand a good polisher 119 

Beeswax cut with turpentine 119 

Bench hook anfl 45° block to 

plane miter - 139, 140 

Bevel set to 45° - 139 

Bichromate of potash stain to age 

wood 113 

Bit Ill, 158 

Blistering varnish 120 

Boiled turpentine 116 

Boring machine Ill 

Brace Ill 

Buried trees. ..^ 115 

C 

Cabinet scraper, steel, size, filed, 

oil-stoned, sharpened Ill 

Capsules Ill 

Carpentry 108 

Carriage varnish 116 

Chamois skin to remove wet 

pumice 118 

Cherrv 108,113 

Chilled glue HO 

Clamp jaw 109 

Clamp made of strips of wood, 

blocks and wedges 109 

Clamp screw 109 

Clear oil applied to white surface 

of patch to get color 118 

Cloths used to rub filler must be 

burned immediately 113 

Cochineal 114 

Cold glue 110 

Construction of hand mirrors, 

128. 129, 130, 131, 132 
Construction of hat frame, 

137. 138. 139 
Constructioa of letter box. 

123. 124. 125, 126 
Construction of magazine holder, 

141. 142. 143, 144 
Construction of mitered frame. 

139, 140, 141 
Construction of octagonal ta- 

boret 126, 127, 128, 132, 133 

Construction of plate rack, 

144, 145.146. 147,148 
Construction of sewing table. 

149. 150,151. 152. 1.53. 1.54 
Construction of small table.. 135. 136 
Construction of square taho- 

ret 134. 1.35 

Cfjpal gum 115 



Copal varnish 115 

Copal varnish made of 115, 116 

Copal varnish must be warmed to 

thin it . 116 

Copal varnish withstands mois- 
ture 116 

Cost of copal varnish 116 

Cost of hand screws . 109 

Cotton wadding on back of mir- 
rors 132 

Cotton wadding to line glove 

boxes 123 

Cover of plane-bit set fine 108 

Cracking varnish 120 

Cross-grained and curly wood 

more valuable Ill 

Curly grain 108 

Cut glue across grain of wood, 122, 126 
Cut glue from corners with sharp 

chisel 122. 126 

Cutting rabbet for glass, 128. 138, 139 

D 

Distilled 115 

Double pot for glue 110 

Doweled joints HI 

Dowel machine Ill 

Dowels in chair work Ill 

Dowels, round tenons, sizes, 

cost Ill 

Dry sandpaper to smooth patch.. 118 
Dry varnish sandpapers off as a 

white powder 116 

E 

Examine rubber of felt for lumps 
of varnish 118 

F 

Felt used as rubber with pumice 117 

Filler applied with brush 113 

Filler colored red, brown, black, 

or left white 113 

Filler tliinned with turpentine.. 113 

Fill grain of wood 113 

Finishing (varnishing) 112 

Fitch varnish brushes 116 

Fossilized gum 115 



c; 



111. 144, 146 

Ill 

,vHh snft 

120 



Glass back 128. 132, 137, 139 

Glove box 120, 121, 122, 123 

Glue blocks for miter joints. ... 140 
Glue blocks on taboret sides for 

hand screws 126, 128, 132 

Glue, composition of Ill 

Glue, conditions of, to work well 110 
Glue cooked or prepared at home 111 
Glue forced into pores by pressure 110 
Glue formed into hundreds of 

little dowels 110 

Gluing ends of wood together. . 110 

Glue joints strong 110 

Glue pot 110 

Glue the holes for dowels. ... 138, 139 
Glue up taboret legs in pairs, 128. 132 

H 

Hand clamps 108, 109 

Hand mirrors. 128, 129, 130. 131, 132 

Hand screw, jaws parallel 108 

Hand screws, how to use. . . 108, 109 

Hard wood 108 

Hat frame 137, 138, 139 

Heating or warming oven 110 

Hold sandpaper on block with 
fingers 112.122,126 



Interior finishing of houses 108 

Iron presses 108 



Jaws of hand screws parallel lOS 

Jointing edges in two ways 110 

Joints glued in cabinet work 108 



Lac, bleached white 114 

Lac. how formed and gathered. . 114 
Lav out true length of taboret 

side 134 

Letter box 123, 124, 125, 126 

Linseed oil left to settle and work 

itself out 115 

Lin.seed c.il made of flax-.seed . . . 115 

Linseed oil r:i\v or boilrd 1)2 

Linseed oil ihiniir.l with 



M PAGE 

Magazine holder... 141.142,143,144 

Mahogany 108 

Mahogany stain 113 

Mitered frame for mirror. 139, 140, 141 
Moldings nailed on 108 

N 

Natural color of wood held by 
shellac varnish 112,115 

New coat on jialch must not have 
ridge around edge 118 



O 



112 



Oak stained or colored bv wood 

fillers 113.114 

Octagonal taboret, 

126, 127, 128, 132, 133 

Oil stains 113.114 

Oil stains preserve wood 113 

Old Mission furniture, 

141, 143. 144, 146, 148 

Opening for glass 128, 137, 139 

Orange shellac 114 



Paper to line glove box 123 

Patch copal varnish with copal, 

not shellac 119 

Patching varnish 118. 119 

Peculiarities of varnish 120 

Piano finishing 117, 119 

Pine, pitch gathered, heated. ... 115 
Plane-bit sharp for hard wood. . . 108 

Plate rack 144. 145, 146, 147, 148 

Plate rack with top shelf 144,145 

Polishing varnish 119 

Preparing glue to cook. 110 

Preparing wood for varnish Ill 

Preparing wood for wax.. . . . 113, 120 
Pressure to make good glue joints, 

108,110 

Pumice and oil 117 

Pumice and water 117 

Pumice cuts better and faster if 

against a soft cushion 118 

Pumice stone 117 

Pumice is lava 117 

Pumice leaves scratches 119 

R 

Babbet for mirror.. 128, 137. 138. 139 

Rabbet plane 138 

Red coloring matter from lac. . . 114 



JIS 



INDEX— CABINET :\IAKING 



219 



PAGE 

Red Sanders and alcohol stain. . 113 

Hesin 115 

Rock crystal 113 

Rotten stone to polish 119 

Rotten stone used with oil or 

water 119 

Rouge to polish 119 

Rubbed down 115.117 

Rubbed glue joints UO 

Rubbing varnish ■ 108 

Rubbing down varnish with 

pumice stone 117 

Rub filler into grain 113 

Rub through 118 



Sandpaper block of rubber or 

Sandpaper between each coat of 

varnish 115, 116 

Sandpaper, fine or coarse 112 

Sandpaper, how made 112 

Sandpaper spoils edges and sharp 

corners 112 

Sandpaper varnish with No. 00 
sandpaper, moistened on back 
or paper side 114, 115, 116 



Sandpaper varnish with paper on 

soft hand, without block 114 

Scraper steel or burnisher 112 

Screw up hand screw to tighten, 

with right hand 109 

Set hand screw with left hand. . . J09 

Sharper tools in cabinet work 108 

Shellac varnish brushed on quick- 
ly 114 

Shellac varnish does not stand 

moisture 115 

Shellac varnish dry in 10 or 12 

hours 114 

Shellac varnish made of shellac 

and alcohol 114 

Shellac varnish must be stirred. . 115 

Shellac varnish recommended 112 

Shellac varnish, special uses. .112, 115 
Shellac varnish thinned with 

alcohol 114 

Shellac varnish, white 114 

Shoulder block of hand clamps. . 109 
Shoulder jaw of hand screws.. 108 

Shoulder screw 108 

Sizing ends of wood before gluing, 

reasons for 110 

Small table with shaped legs. 135, 136 

Soak glue over night UO 

Square taboret 134 



Stains not recommended, reasons 113 

Stains, water, oil, spirit 113, 114 

Still 115 

Sycamore 108 



Table tops 128, 136, 149. 159 

Taboret tops screwed on, not 

glued 128 

To fill wood with wood filler 113 

To flow copal varnish 116 

Tongue and groove joints 110 

Top of small table screwed on, 

not glued 128 

To remove cracked varnish 120 

To stain oak 113 

True surface necessary to polish. 119 
Triangular glue blocks to hold 

mirror 132,137.139,140,141 

Turpentine made of pine pitch. . 115 
Turpentine, raw, destroys 

smoothness and gloss of copal 

varnish 116 



Varnish 114,115,116 

Varnished carpentry work 108 

Varnish flowed on 108 



Varnish in dry, ventilated room. 116 

Varnish must feel dry 116 

Varnish strained and left 12 

months to ripen 116 

Veneering lOS 

W 

Warming copal varnish to thin it 116 
Warming wood to make good 

glue joints UO 

Water stains 113 

Water stains raise grain of wood 113 

Waxed floors 119 

Waxed furniture 119 

Waxing 119 

White glue necessary, how made 111 
Wipe off sandpaper dust before 

revarnishing 116 

Wire brads to mark dowel holes, 

138, 139, 154 
Wood dries faster at open ends of 

fibers no 

Wood fillers 113 

Wood fillers cheap and economi- 
cal 113 

Worraof stiU 115 

Z 

Zinc salts to whiten glue Ill 



INDEX— METHODS OF MOLDING (Page 163) 



B PAGE 

Baked core 165 

Baketi shape 165 

Bearings of shaft 166 

Blow up 165 

Boss 167, 168, 169, 170 

Burn gases 165 

C 

Casting 163. 170 

Cope 163,164,169 

Coping down 164 

Cope sand 163, 164 

Core-box 165. 166, 170 

Cores 165. 166, 167. 170 

Core-oven 165 

Coring 165 

Core-prints 165. 167. 169, 170 

Core sand 165, 166 

Cylindrical cores 165 

D 

Disk 169 

Double shrinkage 171 

Dovetailed pieces 168 

Dovetailed wav 168 

Dowels 167, 169 

Drag or nowel 163. 164. 170 

E 

Exposed half of cylinder 164 



l- PAGE 

Filing a groove to vent core ... . 1 65 

First cope 169 

Flask 163 

Flat diameters 165 

Flour 165 

Frame of iron 163 

G 

Gases 165 

Gear wheels 166 

Green sand 166, 169 

Green sand core 170 

H 

Half core-boxes 165 

Halves are glued 165 

Head stock of lathe 166 

Hollow cores 167 

Hollow ring 163 

I 

Impression in sand 165 

Inside opening or chamber 165 

L 

Lifts off 164 

Lifts out with cope 16.3 

Line of separation 16.3 

Loose nails or dowels 167 



M PAGE 

Machine lathe 166 

Metal patterns 171 

Moist sand 165 

Molten metal 165 

Mold 165, 166. 16S 

Molding sand 163 

Movable boss 167, 168. 169, 170 

Movable parts 167, 168 

N 

Nowel 163 

O 

Oil 165 

Oil takes fire 165 

Overhanging pieces 1 68 

P 

Parted 164,169, 170 

Parted patterns 164 

Parting 163 

Part the patterns 163 

Parts made separately 167 

Paste of flour and water 165 

Pattern made in separate parts, 

163, 164. 167, 168. 169 
Pattern shde past loose boss. 167.169 
Projecting pins 164 



K PAGE 

Rammed down 1 63 

Rammed out 166 

Rammed up 163. 164 

Rammed up in drag and cope. . 16.3 

Right and left core-box 167 

Round cores 165 

Round outside surfaces 165 

S 

Second cope 169 

Set screw 168 

Shaft 166 

Shaped core 165 

Shifting fork 168 

Solid pattern 163 

Steam 165 

T 

Three-parted flask 169 

Triangular pieces 168 

Turbine case 169 

Two-parted flask 163, 170 

V 

Vent core 165 

Vented mold 165 

W 

Web 168 

Wedge-shaped pieces 168 

Wire 167,168 

Wooden pattern 170 



INDEX— PATTERN MAKING (Page 173) 



Baked core 

Balanced core 187, 

Band saw 1S5, 

Bench 

Bevel 

Bevel (tool) 

Black varnish 

Blocks 

Bore 185. 

Boss 175, 

Brass 17.3, 179. 

Brick 



C 

Carved 

Casting 174, 

Center hne, 

179,181,185,186,196, 

Chain 203, 

Chambered 191, 

Chinese vermilion 

Chiseled 

Contracting 

Cooling 

Cope 173,176,179, 182, 

Coped down 175, 

Coping down 176, 187, 

Cope sauil 

Core, 180, 184, 189, 193, 196, 199, 

Core-box, 181, 182, 183, 184. 187, 
191.193,196,200, 

Core-box plane 

Cored out 

Core fall down 

Core-print, 179, 184, 187, 189,190. 
192. 193, 195, 199, 

Core-print loose 

Core sand 

Crinkle the leather fillets 

Cutting down 

Cylinder 

Cylindrical sandpaper block 



D 

Dead center 185 

Diagonal parting 191, 192 



PAGE 

Diagonals 191 

Diagonal grain 199, 200 

Dividers 181 

Dogs 197 

Double pattern. . . . 198, 199, 200. 201 

Dovetailed blocks 179 

Do vetailed way 176 

Dowel 188, 190 

Draft 172, 173, 176, 179, 191, 195 

Drafted 176 

Drag 173. 175. 176. 179. 182 



Elbow 198. 199, 200 



Face plate 199, 200 

Filed core 196 

Filing 186 

Fillets 174, 175, 181, 190 

Finish 173 

Finished all over, 

172,177,180,183,190 

Flask 172.176 

Flour 184 

FoUow-board 179, 182, 187 

Fork (shifting) 175, 176 



Gates 203 

Gibbed slide 177 

Gibbed way 176. 177, 178, 179 

Glue 179,185.190.191.197 

Glued 189, 190. 199, 200 

Gouge heated in water 175 

Grain 190,199,200 

Green sand 193 

Groove 185 

H 

Half circle core-box 181, 182 

Halves of pattern 182 

Handles 185 

Hexagonal 185, 186 

Hub 190 



Imbedded in san.l. 

J 
Joints 

I 

Ke>hole saw 



Lamp black 174 

Lathe 185, 190 

Layer of segments 190 

Leather fillets 174, 175 

Leave own core.. . . 181, 184, 186. 187 

Lifted 173, 176, 182 

Lifted off 176, 187 

Lifted up 176 

Lifting plate 174 

Live center 185, 190 

Links 204 

Loose parts 176, 177 

Loose print 179 



M 

Metal 181 

Methods of coring.. 193, 194, 195. 196 

Mitered 197 

Moisture 174 

Mold 173. 175, 176, 181, 184 

Holder 187 

Movable boss 175, 176 

Movable parts 176, 177, 179 



N 

Nailed core-box 183, 193 

Natural color 174 

Nowel 173 

Nut 186 



Parted 182, 

Parted pattern, 182. 185, 191. 
196. 197. 198. 199. 

Parting 173. 

Parting line 179. 183, 

Parting sand 

Pattern, 173, 174, 175, 178, 180, 

186, 188, 189, 192, 195, 196, 

201 
Pipe connections, 

196,197,198,199, 
Plane bit of core-box plane. 181, 

Plate, rapping or lifting 173, 

Print 

Pull 181, 

Pulled 174, 

Pulley 



Q PAGE 

Quarter circle 200 

Quarter curves 1 74 



Radius 181 

Rammed up. 

175. 176. 179, 182, 187, 191 

Ramming up 173 

Rapped 173 

Rappagc 173 

Rappmg 173 

Rapping plate 173 

Reaming 196 

Recess core 193 

Rectangular brick or core 184 

Red varnish 174 

Resting place 184 

Return bend 200 

Reverse draft 181, 186 

Rim of pulley 190 

Rip 191 

Rod (lifting) 173, 174 

Rounded over dowels 183,185 

Rule, common, shrink 173 



Sand 173, 175. 176, 177, 181 

Saw kerf 200 

Saw oft 185 

Scraping tool 190 

Screw 199, 200 

Semi-circular core-boxes. . . . 181, 182 

Segments 189, 190 

Shapes 184 

Shifting fork 175, 176 

Shrink 173,179 

Shrinkage 173 

Shrink rule 173 

Sifted 176 

Sink into 187 

Slant 173 

Slanted 1 73 

Socket wrench 186 

Staples 197 

Staple plate 197 

Steel 191 

Stick 176,179 



Tapering hole 189 

Tapped 189 

Tee 196, 197 

Tee pattern 196, 197 

Template 181, 



221 



222 



INDEX— PATTERN MAKING 



PAGE 

Thread 173 

Threaded 196 

Tool post 182, 183. 184, 185 

To use core-box plane 182 

To prepare leather fillets 175 

Triangular 176, 179 

Try-square 181 



PAGE 

Turned between centers 190 

Turn buckle 187, 188 

Turned over 176 

U 

Unsupported cores 187 

V 

Varnish 174 



PAGE 

Varnish as a preservative 174 

Vertex of right angle 181 

Vertical face 173 

Vertical edges 173 

W 

Warp 189 

Wax fillets 174, 175 



PAGE 

Web 175,176 

Wedge-shaped 173 

Wipe off glue on fillets 175 

Wire 173 

Wood screws 200 

Wood fillets 174 

Wrench 186, 186, 187 



INDEX— HELPFUL SUGGESTIONS (Page 207) 



A PAGE 

Amateur tools to be avoided. . . . 207 
Artists' round brushes 210 

B 

Band saw safe for pupils 208 

Beeswax for fillets 210 

Belt grease, directions 209 

Belt hooks, noisy but convenient 209 

Belt repairing 209 

Benches, solid and heavy 207 

Bench tip of narrow strips glued 

together 207 

Bevel-edged chisels best 207 

Buy best tools of standard make 207 

C 

Cabinet work or pattern work 
only half completed, without 

varnish 209, 210 

Chinese vermilion for patterns.... 210 
Circular saw for teachers' use. . . 208 
Cleaning varnish cups poor 

economy 210 

Copal rubbing varnish selected 

by sample 210 

Curved work in wood-working 
course 208 

D 

Drawer for edged tools 207 

Drawer, safely locked for each 

boy 207 

Dressing for belts, directions .... 209 

Dry floors 207 

Dry room for manual training . . 207 

Dry walls 207 



Face plates 208 

Fast running belts made endless 209 
Finishing or varnishing wood, 

educational 209, 210 

Files, mill, slim taper 208 

First clear lumber economical.. 209 



Glass bottles for spirit stains. . . 210 
Glue enters into pores of warm, 

wood 210 

Glue soaked in water over night 210 

Grain alcohol for varnish 210 

Grind at grindstones only once a 

month 207 

Grindstones, several in shop 208 

H 

Hand screws greased with bees- 
wax and tallow 208 

Heating oven for wood 210 

High-grade tools, highly tempered 207 
Hold lumber at both ends 207 



Individual drawer in turning shop 



Lamp black for patterns 210 

Lathe complete in itself 208 

Lathes should have counter- 
shafts 208 



PACK 

Loose and tight pulleys easily 

controlled by pupils 208 

Lumber takes up moisture 207 

Lumber must season in dry room 207 

M 

Manual labor for pupils in plan- 
ing hard wood 208 

Machines started by shifting lever 
better for pupils 208 

Motors directly connected with 
machines 207, 208 

O 

Oil-stone, fine 207 

Orange shellac for pattern work. 210 

P 

Planer or surfacer necessary in 

shop 208 

Preparing grease for hand screws 208 

Q 

Quill pencil brushes, directions.... 210 

R 

Round-edged file to file circvilar 
rip saw 208 

S 

Scroll saw safe for pupils 208 

Shaving exhauster carries away 

shavings ". 208 

Shaving exhauster keeps air pure 

and free from dust 208 



Shellac varnish delivered in glass 
bottles 210 

Slim taper file for cross-cut cir- 
cular saw 209 

Small slim taper file for teeth of 
small saws 209 

Stumpage, half-price 209 

S 2 S means smooth or size two 
sides 209 

T 

Tail screw vise 207 

Tange firmer chisels short and 

best for boys 207 

Tin cups, li pint, for varnish cups 210 

Tool cases in turning shop 208 

Tools rust 207 

Training in following marked 

lines 208 

Truing devices for grindstones. . 208 
Turning shop driven by one large 

motor 208 

V 

Varnish cans, incased in wood. . 210 
Vise, quick-acting 207 

W 

Warming oven for wood 210 

Waste in poor lumber great 209 

Wax ordered in one pound cans. 210 

Wire lacing for belts 209 

Wood alcohol varnish not worth 

buying 210 

Wood filler ordered in one i>ound 

cans 210 

Wood swells with dampness 207 



OCT 2 1905 



